Preface ....................................................... xix
Introduction ................................................ xxiii
Turquoise Blue Waters: The Deceiving Calm ................ xxiii
What This Book Accomplishes ............................... xxiv
The Cutting Edge ........................................... xxv
How This Book Is Organized ................................. xxv
Wrap-Up .................................................. xxvii
The Author ................................................... xxix
SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO CATASTROPHIC PLANNING AND RESPONSE
Chapter 1 The Definition and History of Catastrophes ........... 3
1.1 Learning Objectives ........................................ 3
1.2 Key Terms and Phrases ...................................... 3
1.3 Definition of Catastrophe .................................. 4
1.4 Continuum of Magnitude ..................................... 7
1.4.1 Summary Definitions ................................. 7
1.4.2 Planning Dilemma: All-Hazards versus Hazards-
Unique .............................................. 8
1.5 Brief Examples of Historical Catastrophes ................. 10
1.5.1 1755 Lisbon, Portugal, Earthquake and Tsunami ...... 10
1.5.2 Hurricane Mitch: 1998 .............................. 11
1.5.3 Drought/Famine in India: 1965-1967 ................. 13
1.6 Potential Catastrophe Effects on U.S. Emergency
Management ................................................ 14
1.7 Culture and Definitions of Catastrophe .................... 14
1.8 The Big Picture ........................................... 16
1.9 Discussion Questions ...................................... 17
References ..................................................... 18
Chapter 2 How Catastrophes Differ from Disasters .............. 19
2.1 Learning Objectives ....................................... 19
2.2 Key Terms and Phrases ..................................... 19
2.3 Overview .................................................. 20
2.4 Introduction to Catastrophe Response Planning ............. 23
2.5 Past and Future Catastrophes: Their Etiologies and
Challenges ................................................ 25
2.5.1 Middle Ages Black Plague ........................... 25
2.5.2 Little Ice Age in Europe ........................... 27
2.5.3 Irish Potato Famine ................................ 28
2.5.4 The 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic ................... 30
2.5.5 Tsunami of December 26, 2004 ....................... 33
2.5.5.1 Humanitarian Need ......................... 34
2.5.5.2 Criticism of Tsunami Aid Donors ........... 36
2.5.5.3 Criticism of Tsunami Aid-Receiving
Countries ................................. 37
2.5.6 Hurricanes Katrina and Rita ........................ 38
2.5.7 Haitian Earthquake ................................. 41
2.6 Potential Future Catastrophes ............................. 43
2.6.1 Sea Level Rise ..................................... 43
2.6.2 Drought and Desertification ........................ 45
2.6.3 Global Pandemic .................................... 47
2.6.4 New Madrid Mega-Earthquake ......................... 47
2.7 Factors Common in Catastrophes ............................ 48
2.8 Discussion Questions ...................................... 50
References ..................................................... 50
I Conclusion ................................................... 53
SECTION II ETHICAL, POLITICAL, AND LEGAL ISSUES
Chapter 3 Ethics .............................................. 59
3.1 Learning Objectives ....................................... 59
3.2 Key Terms and Phrases ..................................... 59
3.3 An Introduction to Catastrophic Ethics .................... 60
3.4 Defining Ethics ........................................... 61
3.5 Ethical Duties Related to Professional Roles .............. 66
3.6 The Moral Community: How It Is Defined in Terms of
Catastrophic Response and Readiness ....................... 68
3.7 Competing Ethical Theories and Frameworks ................. 69
3.8 Utilitarian Catastrophic Response ......................... 70
3.9 Deontological Perspectives: Duties and Principles to
Govern Catastrophic Planning and Response ................. 73
3.9.1 Individual Autonomy ................................ 73
3.9.2 Rights ............................................. 74
3.9.3 Social Justice ..................................... 75
3.10 Environmental Ethics ...................................... 76
3.11 Virtue Ethics and Catastrophic Response ................... 77
3.12 Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) Ethical Dilemmas ....... 79
3.13 Discussion Questions ...................................... 80
References ..................................................... 80
Chapter 4 Political and Legal Issues .......................... 83
4.1 Learning Objectives ....................................... 83
4.2 Key Terms and Phrases ..................................... 83
4.3 Overview .................................................. 85
4.4 FEMA Comprehensive Preparedness Guide ..................... 85
4.5 The National Incident Management System (NIMS) ............ 88
4.6 The National Response Framework (NRF) ..................... 89
4.7 Principles of Federalism and Exceptions to Federalism ..... 92
4.8 Intergovernmental Collaboration: A Cornerstone of
Effective Catastrophic Planning and Response .............. 95
4.9 Federal Government Plans for Catastrophe Readiness and
Response ................................................. 100
4.10 Ensuring Enduring Federal and State Constitutional
Governments .............................................. 103
4.10.1 Federal Continuity of Operations (COOP)
Planning .......................................... 104
4.10.2 Federal Continuity of Government (COG) ............ 107
4.10.3 State Level COOP/COG Planning ..................... 108
4.11 Local Government Comprehensive Emergency Response
Plans .................................................... 109
4.12 The Political Structure of the U.S. Emergency
Managementsystem ......................................... 110
4.12.1 Local Government .................................. 110
4.12.2 State Government .................................. 110
4.12.3 The Federalist System ............................. 113
4.13 Use of National Guard or Other Military Forces in
Catastrophe Response ..................................... 114
4.14 Potential Federal System Breakdowns in Hypothetical
Future Catastrophic Events ............................... 116
4.15 State Government Legal Powers during a Catastrophe ....... 119
4.16 State Legal Protection Laws for Volunteers ............... 121
4.16.1 Tort Law .......................................... 121
4.16.2 Negligence ........................................ 122
4.16.3 Immunity from Claims of Negligence for
Government Actions ................................ 123
4.16.3.1 Discretionary Immunity ................... 123
4.16.3.2 Governmental Immunity .................... 123
4.16.3.3 Statutory Immunity ....................... 124
4.16.4 Exceptions to Immunity ............................ 124
4.16.5 Defenses in Claims of Negligence .................. 124
4.16.6 Indemnification of Public Employees and
Volunteers ........................................ 125
4.17 Political Implications of Catastrophes at Various
Governmental and Political Levels ........................ 125
4.18 Legal Issues Involving Governmental Powers for
Catastrophe Response and Reconstruction .................. 128
4.18.1 Use of Private Resources in a Disaster Response ... 128
4.18.2 Communicating Warnings ............................ 129
4.18.3 Prohibiting Access to Damaged Areas ............... 130
4.18.4 Compelling an Evacuation .......................... 130
4.19 Political and Legal Change That Can Result from
Catastrophes ............................................. 130
4.20 Challenges of Interjurisdictional Partnerships ........... 136
4.20.1 Illusion of Partnerships .......................... 136
4.20.2 Role of Interorganizational Partnerships .......... 137
4.20.3 Interjurisdictional Partnerships Issues ........... 137
4.20.4 Strategies for Successful Interjurisdictional
Partnerships ...................................... 137
4.21 Discussion Questions ..................................... 138
Further Readings ......................................... 140
References ............................................... 140
II Conclusion ................................................. 143
SECTION III OPERATIONAL ISSUES
Chapter 5 Logistics .......................................... 149
5.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 149
5.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 149
5.3 Overview ................................................. 149
5.4 The Concept of Convergence ............................... 150
5.5 Logistics in Disasters Compared to Catastrophes .......... 151
5.6 Challenges to Critical Resource Provision ................ 155
5.7 Social and Cultural Context .............................. 159
5.8 Discussion Questions ..................................... 162
References .................................................... 162
Chapter 6 Critical Infrastructure/Key Resources (CI/KR) ...... 165
6.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 165
6.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 165
6.3 Introduction ............................................. 166
6.4 Overview of Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources
(CI/KR) .................................................. 166
6.4.1 What Is CI/KR? .................................... 166
6.5 CI/KR Protection ......................................... 167
6.6 Effects of a Catastrophe on Infrastructure ............... 169
6.6.1 South Florida Hurricane ........................... 170
6.6.2 New Madrid Earthquake ............................. 171
6.7 Critical Infrastructure Needs of Responders .............. 172
6.8 Prioritization of Restoration of Critical
Infrastructure ........................................... 173
6.9 Discussion Questions ..................................... 174
Further Readings .............................................. 175
Chapter 7 Mass Care: Public Health ........................... 177
7.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 177
7.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 177
7.3 Introduction ............................................. 178
7.3.1 Role of Public Health ............................. 178
7.4 Basic Vocabulary ......................................... 178
7.4.1 Public Health versus Medicine ..................... 179
7.5 Infectious Disease Vocabulary ............................ 180
7.6 Disease Control Mechanisms ............................... 182
7.7 Catastrophes and Public Health ........................... 183
7.8 Public Health Priorities ................................. 187
7.9 Infrastructure and Support Needed for Public Health ...... 187
7.9.1 The National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) ....... 188
7.10 Role of Surge Capacity Planning in Catastrophes .......... 190
7.11 Emergency Management: Public Health Collaboration in
Catastrophes ............................................. 191
7.12 Discussion Questions .................................... 192
References .................................................... 192
Chapter 8 Mass Evacuation and Relocation ..................... 195
8.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 195
8.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 195
8.3 Introduction ............................................. 196
8.4 Defining Mass Relocation ................................. 197
8.5 Complexity and Causation ................................. 199
8.6 Understanding Mass Relocation ............................ 200
8.7 Historic Perspective of Catastrophes and Mass
Relocation ............................................... 202
8.7.1 Irish Potato Famine ............................... 203
8.7.2 Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 ................... 203
8.7.3 The Dust Bowl ..................................... 203
8.7.4 Hurricane Katrina ................................. 207
8.8 Global Climate Changes and Mass Relocation ............... 208
8.8.1 Loss of Ecosystem Services ........................ 208
8.8.2 Loss of Land ...................................... 209
8.8.3 Increasing Intensity and Frequency of Climate
Driven Disasters .................................. 210
8.8.4 Environmental Change and Forced Migration ......... 210
8.9 Defining the Displaced ................................... 210
8.10 Human Rights Dimensions of Mass Relocation ............... 211
8.11 Mass Relocation and the Legal Status of the Displaced .... 212
8.12 Identifying the Potentially Displaced .................... 214
8.12.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) Article 4.8 ....................... 215
8.13 Mass Relocation as Mitigation ............................ 215
8.14 Social Vulnerability ..................................... 216
8.15 Demographic Movement ..................................... 217
8.16 Continua of Displacement ................................. 218
8.17 Displacement and Loss .................................... 220
8.18 Involuntary Displacement and Recovery .................... 223
8.19 Resettlement ............................................. 224
8.20 Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction Model ............ 228
8.20.1 Displacement and Sustainable Livelihoods .......... 229
8.20.2 Displacement and Resettlement as a Complex
System ............................................ 229
8.20.3 Resettlement, Reconstruction, and Development ..... 230
8.21 Responsible Agencies in Mass Relocation .................. 230
8.22 Resettlement Action Plan ................................. 231
8.22.1 Example of Success: Preparatory Stages for the
Arenal Dam Resettlement Project ................... 232
8.23 The Near Future .......................................... 234
8.24 Discussion Questions ..................................... 234
References .................................................... 235
III Conclusion ................................................ 239
SECTION IV PLANNING STRATEGIES AND SKILLS: RESPONSE,
RECOVERY, AND RECONSTRUCTION
Chapter 9 Response Planning .................................. 245
9.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 245
9.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 245
9.3 Risk Management System for Catastrophe Response .......... 246
9.3.1 Allocation of Scarce Resources .................... 246
9.3.2 Risk Assessment ................................... 246
9.3.3 Risk Management ................................... 249
9.4 Importance of Flexibility in Catastrophe Response ........ 250
9.5 Strategic Thinking with Regard to Catastrophe Response ... 251
9.5.1 Objective-Based Response Management ............... 251
9.6 U.S. Catastrophic Response Assistance Framework .......... 254
9.6.1 Scope of the NRF-CIA .............................. 255
9.6.2 Noteworthy Observations ........................... 256
9.6.3 Continuity of Operations (COOP)/ Continuity of
Government (COG) .................................. 257
9.6.4 Roles of NRF Emergency Support Functions (ESFs)
in Catastrophic Response .......................... 257
9.7 Planning Needs for Management of Voluntary Responders .... 260
9.7.1 Preevent Volunteer Management Planning ............ 260
9.8 Methods of Integrating International Responders into
the Response Effort ...................................... 261
9.9 Systemic Differences between Disasters and
Catastrophes ............................................. 263
9.10 Integration Strategies ................................... 264
9.11 Planning Issues Related to Managing of Mass Casualties ... 264
9.11.1 Creation of a Local Catastrophic Planning
Committee ........................................ 265
9.11.2 Casualties in Catastrophe Area ................... 266
9.11.3 Special Needs Population ......................... 266
9.11.3.1 Healthcare Providers ................... 267
9.11.4 Impact on Surrounding Areas ...................... 268
9.11.4.1 Economic ............................... 268
9.11.4.2 Health ................................. 268
9.11.5 Evacuation Issues ................................ 270
9.12 Planning Issues Related to Managing Mass Fatalities ...... 270
9.12.1 Mass Graves/Cremation Usually Inappropriate and
Unnecessary ...................................... 271
9.12.2 Federal Assistance for Mass Fatality
Management: Disaster Mortuary Operational
Response Teams (DMORT) ........................... 271
9.13 Myths About Planning for Catastrophes .................... 272
9.14 Discussion Questions ..................................... 273
References .................................................... 273
Chapter 10 Recovery and Reconstruction Planning ............... 277
10.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 277
10.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 277
10.3 Overview ................................................. 278
10.4 Issues Faced Following a Catastrophe ..................... 278
10.5 Defining Catastrophe Recovery ............................ 27U
10.6 Elements of Recovery ..................................... 280
10.7 Catastrophic Recovery Process ............................ 283
10.8 Stakeholders and Their Roles in Recovery ................. 285
10.8.1 Public Sector ..................................... 285
10.8.1.1 State Emergency Management Agency ........ 286
10.8.1.2 Governor's Office ........................ 287
10.8.1.3 State Legislature ........................ 287
10.8.1.4 Local Government ......................... 288
10.8.2 Quasigovernmental and Nongovernmental
Organizations ..................................... 289
10.8.2.1 Regional Planning Organizations ......... 289
10.8.2.2 Professional Associations ................ 289
10.8.2.3 Colleges and Universities ................ 290
10.8.3 Nonprofit Relief Organizations .................... 290
10.8.3.1 Nonprofits ............................... 290
10.8.3.2 Foundations .............................. 291
10.8.3.3 International Aid Organizations and
Foreign Nations .......................... 291
10.8.4 Private Sector and For-Profit Organizations ....... 291
10.8.4.1 Business and Corporations .............. 291
10.8.5 Emergent Groups and Individuals ................... 292
10.9 U.S. Disaster/Catastrophic Recovery Assistance
Framework ................................................ 293
10.9.1 Emergency Support Function #14-Long-Term
Community Recovery Annex .......................... 295
10.10 FEMA's Environmental Planning and Historic
Preservation (EHP) Program .............................. 298
10.11 Rules and Understanding of Local Needs .................. 298
10.12 Timing of Catastrophic Assistance ....................... 299
10.13 Horizontal and Vertical Integration ..................... 301
10.14 Catastrophe Recovery Planning ........................... 303
10.14.1 Predisaster ..................................... 304
10.14.2 Postcatastrophe: Emergency Phase ................ 304
10.14.3 Postcatastrophe: Long-Term Recovery and
Reconstruction .................................. 305
10.14.4 Precatastrophe .................................. 306
10.14.5 Postcatastrophe: Emergency Phase ................ 306
10.14.6 Postcatastrophe: Long-Term Recovery and
Reconstruction .................................. 307
10.14.7 Precatastrophe versus Postcatastrophe
Planning ........................................ 308
10.15 Catastrophic Recovery Plan .............................. 309
10.16 Discussion Questions .................................... 310
References .................................................... 310
IV Conclusion ................................................. 313
SECTION V ESSENTIAL LEADERSHIP SKILLS FOR SUCCESSFUL
CATASTROPHE MANAGEMENT
Chapter 11 Essential Leadership Skills for Successful
Catastrophe Management ............................. 317
11.1 Learning Objectives ...................................... 317
11.2 Key Terms and Phrases .................................... 318
11.3 Overview ................................................. 318
11.4 Introduction ............................................. 318
11.4.1 The Challenge of the "Unthinkable" ................ 322
11.4.2 The Culture of Leaders ............................ 322
11.4.3 The Identity of Leaders ........................... 323
11.4.4 Complex Maps of Actors ............................ 323
11.4.5 New Processes for Crisis Recovery ................. 323
11.5 The Need for Skilled Crisis Leaders ...................... 324
11.6 Defining/Measuring Crises ................................ 324
11.7 Organizational Crisis Scenarios .......................... 325
11.8 Defining Leadership
11.8.1 Communication ..................................... 328
11.8.2 Clarity of Vision and Values ...................... 330
11.8.3 Caring ............................................ 330
11.8.4 Personal Example .................................. 331
11.8.5 Character ......................................... 331
11.8.6 Competence ........................................ 332
11.8.7 Courage ........................................... 332
11.8.8 Decisiveness ...................................... 333
11.9 Leadership's Role in a Crisis ............................ 334
11.9.1 Emotional Intelligence ............................ 335
11.9.2 Competence ........................................ 335
11.9.3 Courage ........................................... 336
11.9.4 Decisiveness ...................................... 336
11.10 Preparing for Crisis .................................... 336
11.11 Leading during a Crisis ................................. 337
11.12 Recovery and Rebuilding ................................. 337
11.13 What Leaders Can Do to Take Care of Themselves during
a Crisis ................................................ 338
11.14 Discussion Questions .................................... 339
References .................................................... 339
V Conclusion .................................................. 341
Epilogue ...................................................... 343
Index ......................................................... 345
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