Introduction. Nanomaterials and Nanoproducts: World
Markets and Human and Environmental Impacts ................ XXXIII
Eric Gaffet ................................................ XXXIII
1 Nanotechnologies ......................................... XXXIV
2 Nanomaterials ............................................ XXXIV
3 Social and Economic Aspects ............................... XXXV
3.1 Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials Markets ............. XXXV
3.2 Financing in France .................................. XXXV
3.3 Production and Applications of Nanomaterials ........ XXXVI
3.4 Nanomaterials and Safety .............................. XLI
4 The Need for Studies in Nanotoxicity and Nanoethics ....... XLII
References ................................................ XLII
Part I Nanotoxicity: Experimental Toxicology of
Nanoparticles and Their Impact on Humans
1 Toxicity of Particles: A Brief History ........................ 3
Marie-Claude Jaurand and Jean-Claude Pairon .................. 3
1.1 Sociological and Technical Factors Conditioning
the Study of Particle Toxicity .......................... 4
1.2 Pathologies Caused by Inorganic Dusts ................... 6
1.2.1 Pneumoconiosis ................................... 6
1.2.2 Cancer ........................................... 7
1.3 Particles Causing Pathogenic Effects in the Airways
and Respiratory System .................................. 8
1.3.1 Origin of Particles .............................. 8
1.3.2 Types of Particle ................................ 9
1.4 Evolution in the Methods for Investigating Toxicity .... 11
1.4.1 Studies on Animals .............................. 11
1.4.2 Isolated Cells .................................. 13
1.4.3 Molecular Epidemiology .......................... 14
1.5 Results on Particle Toxicity Mechanisms ................ 15
1.5.1 Proven Major Risk Factors: Silica and
Asbestos ........................................ 15
1.5.2 Suspected Risk Factors: Artificial Mineral
Fibres .......................................... 20
1.5.3 Unknown Risk Factors: Nanoparticles ............. 21
1.6 Results and Further Questions .......................... 22
1.7 Conclusions and Prospects .............................. 25
References .................................................. 26
2 Exposure, Uptake, and Barriers .............................. 37
Armelle Baeza-Squiban and Sophie Lanone ..................... 37
2.1 Exposure ............................................... 37
2.1.1 Which Environmental Compartment? ................ 38
2.1.2 What Kind of Particles? ......................... 38
2.1.3 Exposure Context ................................ 39
2.1.4 Dose ............................................ 39
2.2 Uptake ................................................. 39
2.2.1 Respiratory Route ............................... 39
2.2.2 Cutaneous Route ................................. 44
2.2.3 Digestive Route ................................. 46
2.3 Barrier Crossing ....................................... 47
2.3.1 Internalisation Mechanisms ...................... 47
2.3.2 Particle Translocation .......................... 51
2.4 Nanoparticle Biodistribution in the Organism.
Elimination ............................................ 55
2.5 Conclusion ............................................. 57
References .................................................. 58
3 Experimental Models in Nanotoxicology ....................... 63
Armelle Baeza-Squiban, Ghislaine Lacroix, and Frédéric
Y. Bois ..................................................... 63
3.1 In Vivo Models ......................................... 63
3.1.1 Different Animal Species Used ................... 63
3.1.2 Types of Animal Model ........................... 64
3.1.3 Types of Exposure ............................... 66
3.1.4 Targets ......................................... 68
3.2 In Vitro Models ........................................ 69
3.2.1 Cell Cultures ................................... 70
3.2.2 In Vitro Methods in Regulatory Toxicology ....... 71
3.2.3 In Vitro Methods for Assessing Nanoparticle
Toxicity ........................................ 71
3.2.4 Specific Problems for Assessing In Vitro
Toxicity of Nanoparticles ....................... 74
3.3 Predicting Penetration and Fate of Nanoparticles in
the Body ............................................... 75
3.3.1 Pharmacokinetics ................................ 76
3.3.2 Pharmacokinetic Models .......................... 77
3.3.3 Examples of Applications to Nanomaterials ....... 80
3.4 Conclusion ............................................. 82
References .................................................. 83
4 Nanoparticle Toxicity Mechanisms: Oxidative Stress and
Inflammation ................................................ 87
Béatrice L'Azou and Francelyne Marano ....................... 87
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 87
4.1.1 From Particulate Toxicology to Nanotoxicology ... 87
4.1.2 Nanoparticles, Oxidative Stress, and
Inflammation .................................... 88
4.1.3 Acute Inflammatory Reaction and Inflammatory
Defence Against Chronic Pathologies ............. 89
4.2 Interactions Between Nanoparticles and Biological
Media, Including Proteins .............................. 90
4.3 Nanoparticles and Oxidative Stress ..................... 93
4.3.1 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) ................... 93
4.3.2 Reactive Oxygen Species and Their Effects ....... 95
4.3.3 Nanoparticles, ROS production, and Oxidative
Stress .......................................... 97
4.4 Nanoparticles and Inflammatory Response ................ 99
4.4.1 Fine and Ultrafine Atmospheric Particles,
Man-Made Nanoparticles, and Inflammation:
A Clearly Established Relationship .............. 99
4.4.2 Comparability of Cellular and Molecular
Toxicity Mechanisms for Fine and Ultrafine
Atmospheric Particles and Nanoparticles ........ 102
4.5 Conclusion ............................................ 104
References ................................................. 105
5 Nanoparticle Toxicity Mechanisms: Genotoxicity ............. 1ll
Alain Botta and Laïla Benameur ............................. 1ll
5.1 Mechanisms for Radical Species Production ............. 1ll
5.1.1 Intrinsic Production ........................... 1ll
5.1.2 Production by Interaction with Cell Targets .... 112
5.1.3 Production Mediated by Inflammatory Reaction ... 112
5.2 General Genotoxicity Mechanisms ....................... 112
5.2.1 Direct Clastogenic Mechanisms .................. 113
5.2.2 Indirect Clastogenic Mechanism ................. 113
5.2.3 Aneugenic Mechanism ........................... 114
5.2.4 Production of DNA Adducts ...................... 114
5.3 Detection and Characterisation of Genotoxicity ........ 115
5.3.1 Detecting Primary DNA Alterations .............. 115
5.3.2 Detecting Gene Mutations ....................... 116
5.3.3 Detecting Chromosome Mutations ................. 117
5.4 Nanoparticle Genotoxic Action Mechanisms: Current
Data from the Main Scientific Studies ................. 118
5.4.1 Carbon-Containing Nanoparticles ................ 119
5.4.2 Metal-Containing Nanoparticles ................. 123
5.4.3 Quantum Dots ................................... 128
5.4.4 Other Types of Nanoparticle .................... 128
5.4.5 Comparative Studies Between Different
Nanoparticles .................................. 130
5.4.6 Review of Genotoxicity Mechanisms .............. 130
5.5 Conclusion ............................................ 130
References ................................................. 142
6 Elements of Epidemiology ................................... 147
Agnès Lefranc and Sophíe Larríeu ........................... 147
6.1 Generalities .......................................... 147
6.2 Studies of Ultrafine Particles and Lack of Data for
Nanoparticles ......................................... 148
6.3 Review of Epidemiological Studies of Ultrafine
Particles Suspended in the Surrounding Atmosphere ..... 149
6.3.1 Assessing Exposure ............................. 152
6.3.2 Health Indicators .............................. 153
6.3.3 Different Types of Analyses Carried out ........ 154
6.3.4 Results ........................................ 155
6.3.5 Interpretation of Findings ..................... 157
6.4 Drawing Conclusions about Intrinsic Nanoparticle
Effects ............................................... 159
References ................................................. 160
7 Monitoring Nanoaerosols and Occupational Exposure .......... 163
Olivier Witschger .......................................... 163
7.1 Terminology and Definitions ........................... 164
7.1.1 Nanoparticles .................................. 164
7.1.2 Nanomaterials .................................. 166
7.2 Characterising Occupational Exposure .................. 167
7.2.1 Conventional Approach to Aerosols .............. 168
7.2.2 Measurement Criteria for Exposure to
Nanoaerosols ................................... 170
7.2.3 Instrumentation and Methods .................... 174
7.2.4 Sampling and Deposition of Particles ........... 178
7.2.5 Sampling and Physicochemical Analysis .......... 179
7.2.6 Measurement Strategies and Interpretation of
Results ........................................ 180
7.3 Occupational Exposure ................................. 183
7.3.1 Exposure Factors and Scenarios: Qualitative
Aspects ........................................ 183
7.3.2 Practical Approach to Identify the
Nanoparticulate Character of a Work Context .... 187
7.3.3 Emission of Nanoparticles by Powdered
Materials. Nanopowders ......................... 189
7.4 Setting Up Reference Concentrations ................... 191
7.5 Conclusion and Prospects .............................. 193
References ................................................. 194
8 Monitoring Nanoaerosols and Environmental Exposure ......... 201
Corinne Mandin, Olivier Le Bihan, and Olivier Aguerre-
Chariol .................................................... 201
8.1 Origin and Nature of Environmental Exposure ........... 202
8.1.1 Life Cycle and Environmental Exposure .......... 202
8.1.2 Exposure Routes ................................ 202
8.2 Characterising Environmental Exposure ................. 203
8.2.1 Nanoparticle Measurement in Air ................ 204
8.2.2 Nanoparticle Measurement in Water .............. 207
8.2.3 Nanoparticle Measurement in Soil ............... 208
8.3 Conclusion ............................................ 208
References ................................................. 208
9 Nanoparticles and Nanomaterials: Assessing the Risk to
Human Health ............................................... 211
Denis Bard ................................................. 211
9.1 Identifying the Hazards ............................... 212
9.2 Dose-Response Relationship ............................ 215
9.3 Exposure .............................................. 216
9.4 Conclusion ............................................ 217
References ................................................. 217
10 Technical Risk Prevention in the Workplace ................. 219
Myriam Ricaud .............................................. 219
10.1 Prevention ............................................ 220
10.2 Changing the Process .................................. 223
10.3 Collective Safety Measures ............................ 224
10.3.1 Closed Systems ................................. 224
10.3.2 Ventilating and Purifying the Workplace
Atmosphere ..................................... 225
10.3.3 Air Filtering in the Workplace ................. 228
10.4 Organisational Measures ............................... 231
10.4.1 Work Area ...................................... 231
10.4.2 Personal Hygiene ............................... 232
10.4.3 Product Storage ................................ 232
10.4.4 Waste Processing ............................... 233
10.4.5 Accident and Incident Management ............... 233
10.5 Personal Safety ....................................... 233
10.5.1 Respiratory Protection ......................... 233
10.5.2 Skin Protection ................................ 236
10.6 Informing Staff ....................................... 237
10.6.1 Labelling ...................................... 237
10.6.2 Safety Data Sheets ............................. 237
10.7 Staff Training ........................................ 237
10.8 Conclusion ............................................ 238
References ................................................. 239
11 Occupational Exposure to Nanoparticles and Medical
Safety ..................................................... 243
Patrick Brochard, Daniel Bloch, and Jean-Claude Pairon ..... 243
11.1 Should We Organise a Specific Occupational Safety
Programme for Workers Coming into Contact with
Nanoparticles? ........................................ 244
11.2 What Should Be the Basis for Organising Specific
Medical Monitoring? ................................... 245
11.2.1 What Experimental Toxicological Data Should
Be Considered? ................................. 245
11.2.2 What Human Data Should Be Considered? .......... 246
11.3 Implementing Medical Surveillance ..................... 252
11.3.1 Available Biomarkers ........................... 252
11.4 Publications on Medical Surveillance .................. 255
11.5 What Is on Offer in France? ........................... 256
11.5.1 Surveillance Protocols for Cross-Sectional
and Cohort Epidemiological Studies ............. 256
11.5.2 Surveillance Protocols for Clinical Research
Studies Screening the Effects of Controlled
Exposure in the Laboratory ..................... 257
11.5.3 Surveillance Protocols in the Workplace ........ 257
11.6 Conclusion ............................................ 259
References ................................................. 260
Part II Nanotoxicity: Experimental Toxicology of
Nanoparticles and Their Impact on the Environment
12 Surface Reactivity of Manufactured Nanoparticles ........... 269
Mélanie Auffan, Jérôme Rose, Corinne Chanéac, Jean-Pierre
Jolivet, Armand Masion, Mark R. Wiesner, and Jean-Yves
Bottero .................................................... 269
12.1 Nanoscale Description of Surfaces ..................... 270
12.1.1 Surface Atoms .................................. 270
12.1.2 Excess Surface Energy .......................... 272
12.1.3 Surface Properties ............................. 274
12.2 Relation Between Surface Energy and Control of Size
and Shape ............................................. 275
12.2.1 Proton Adsorption-Desorption ................... 275
12.2.2 Polyol Adsorption .............................. 276
12.3 Surface Reactivity and Photocatalysis ................. 277
12.3.1 Photocatalysis: Definition ..................... 278
12.3.2 Effect of Particle Size on Photocatalysis ...... 279
12.3.3 Environmental Applications of Photocatalysis ... 281
12.4 Surface Reactivity and Adsorption-Desorption .......... 282
12.4.1 Pollutant Adsorption. Arsenic .................. 282
12.4.2 Catalysis. MoS2 Particles ...................... 283
12.4.3 Dissolution and Salting out of Toxic Ions ...... 284
12.5 Conclusion ............................................ 285
References ................................................. 285
13 Fate of Nanoparticles in Aqueous Media ..................... 291
Jérôme Labille and Jean-Yves Bottero ....................... 291
13.1 Specific Features of Nanoparticles .................... 293
13.1.1 Increased Specific Surface Area ................ 293
13.1.2 Size-Related Surface Energy .................... 293
13.1.3 Consequences for the Fate of Nanoparticles
in the Environment ............................. 294
13.2 Nanoparticle Dispersion and Transport in Aqueous
Media ................................................. 295
13.2.1 Nanoparticle Surface Properties and Affinity
for Water ...................................... 295
13.2.2 Stability of Nanoparticles in Suspension.
Dispersion and Aggregation ..................... 298
13.2.3 Nanoparticle Mobility and Attachment in
Water-Saturated Porous Media ................... 312
13.3 Conclusion ............................................ 321
References ................................................. 322
14 Ecotoxicology: Nanoparticle Reactivity and Living
Organisms .................................................. 325
Mélanie Auffan, Emmanuel Flahaut, Antoine Thill, Florence
Mouchet, Marie Carrière, Laury Gauthier, Wafa Achouak,
Jérôme Rose, Mark R. Wiesner, and Jean-Yves Bottero ........ 325
14.1 Physicochemical Properties and Ecotoxicity of
Nanoparticles ......................................... 326
14.1.1 Nanoparticle Aggregation ....................... 327
14.1.2 Chemical Stability of Nanoparticles ............ 329
14.1.3 Functionalised or Passivated Nanoparticles ..... 330
14.2 Ecotoxicity for Bacteria .............................. 331
14.2.1 Bacteria ....................................... 332
14.2.2 Effects of Nanoparticles on Bacterial
Viability ...................................... 333
14.2.3 Exposure of Bacteria to Nanoparticles .......... 333
14.2.4 Oxidative Stress ............................... 337
14.3 Ecotoxicity for Aquatic Organisms ..................... 338
14.3.1 Carbon Nanoparticles ........................... 338
14.3.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles ............ 346
14.3.3 Latex Nanoparticles ............................ 347
14.3.4 Co-contamination by Nanoparticles and Metals
or Organic Pollutants .......................... 347
14.4 Phytotoxicity and Translocation in Plants ............. 348
14.4.1 Basic Tools for Studying Nanoparticle
Phytotoxicity .................................. 349
14.4.2 Phytotoxic Effects: Inhibition of Germination
and Growth ..................................... 349
14.4.3 Nanoparticle Translocation from Roots to
Aerial Parts ................................... 350
14.5 Conclusion ............................................ 350
References ................................................. 352
15 Toxicological Models Part A: Toxicological Studies of
Nanoparticles on Biological Targets and Attempts
to Attenuate Toxicity by Encapsulation Techniques .......... 359
Roberta Brayner and Fernand Fiévet ......................... 359
15.1 Chemical Synthesis of Nanoparticles and
Toxicological Studies ................................. 363
15.1.1 Type II-VI Semiconductor Nanoparticles ......... 364
15.1.2 ZnO Nanoparticles .............................. 367
15.2 New Ways to Synthesise Protected Nanoparticles with
Reduced Toxicological Effects ......................... 370
15.2.1 Surface Functionalisation and Passivation
of Type II-VI Semiconductor Nanoparticles ...... 370
15.2.2 Nanoparticle Encapsulation by an SiO2 Shell .... 372
15.3 Conclusion ............................................ 375
References ................................................. 375
16 Toxicological Models Part B: Environmental Models .......... 379
Jeanne Garric and Eric Thybaud ............................. 379
16.1 Types of Nanoparticles Investigated ................... 380
16.2 Types of Preparation .................................. 380
16.3 Compartments .......................................... 382
16.3.1 Terrestrial Compartment ........................ 382
16.3.2 Aquatic Compartment ............................ 385
16.4 Limitations of these Tests ............................ 391
16.5 Conclusion and Prospects .............................. 391
References ................................................. 392
17 Life Cycle Models and Risk Assessment ...................... 397
Jérôme Labille, Christine O. Hendren, Armand Masion,
and Mark R. Wiesner ........................................ 397
17.1 Potential and Risks of Nanotechnologies ............... 397
17.1.1 Hazards ........................................ 399
17.1.2 Exposure ....................................... 399
17.2 Monitoring Nanomaterials Throughout Their Life Cycle
to Predict Emissions into the Environment ............. 400
17.3 Nanomaterial Interactions with the Environment ........ 402
17.3.1 Models for Estimating Existing Risks ........... 403
17.3.2 The Situation for Nanomaterials ................ 403
17.3.3 Degradation of Nanomaterials ................... 404
17.3.4 Compiling Data ................................. 405
17.4 Characterising the Hazards of Nanotechnologies:
Toxicity .............................................. 405
17.5 Present State of Knowledge Regarding Nano Risk ........ 406
17.6 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Sunscreen Creams .... 408
17.6.1 Protocol for Laboratory Reconstitution of
Deterioration .................................. 409
17.6.2 Nanomaterial Dispersion Kinetics in an
Aqueous Medium ................................. 410
17.6.3 Characterising Deterioration Reactions ......... 411
17.6.4 Life Cycle in a Biotic Medium and
Introduction into the Food Chain ............... 412
17.7 Conclusion ............................................ 415
References ................................................. 416
Part III Nanoethics: Ethical Questions Raised by
Nanotechnology and Scientific Discovery on the Nanoscale
18 Nanoethics: Challenges and Opportunities ................... 423
Alain Pompidou ............................................. 423
References ................................................. 426
19 Ethics and Medicine: Philosophical Guidelines for a
Responsible Use of Nanotechnology .......................... 427
Corine Pelluchon ........................................... 427
19.1 Definition of Ethics .................................. 427
19.2 Exacerbation of Problems Inherent in Conventional
Techniques ............................................ 428
19.3 The Use of Nanotechnologies and Society's Purpose ..... 429
19.4 What Criterion Can Distinguish Between Legitimate
and Illegitimate Uses of Bionanotechnologies? ......... 430
19.5 International Norms and the Political Community ....... 432
References ................................................. 433
Part IV Nanoethics and Regulation: The Situation in France
20 Situation in France: Ethical Reflection on Research
in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology .......................... 437
Jacques Bordé .............................................. 437
20.1 Awareness of Nanotechnological Risk in North
America ............................................... 437
20.2 Reaction of the European Union ........................ 437
20.3 Mobilisation of Research in the Human Sciences ........ 438
20.4 Motivation for the Ethics Committee of the CNRS ....... 439
20.5 A State of Turmoil in France .......................... 440
20.6 Position of the CNRS .................................. 441
20.7 The Position of Other French Institutions ............. 443
20.8 Further Developments Within the CNRS .................. 444
20.9 Recommendations by COMETS ............................. 445
20.10 Impact of the COMETS Conclusions and the Role of
the CNRS in the Debate ............................... 446
20.11 Dialogue with Civil Society .......................... 447
20.12 Preparing Researchers for a New Form of
Communication ........................................ 448
20.13 Conclusion ........................................... 449
References ................................................. 451
21 Situation in France: Nanoparticles in the Grenelle
Environment Forum .......................................... 455
Philippe Hubert ............................................ 455
21.1 Health-Environment Working Group and Conclusions
of the Round Tables ................................... 455
21.2 Recommendations of the Three Operational Committees ... 457
21.3 Law and Prospects Opened by the Grenelle Environment
Forum ................................................. 459
21.4 Conclusion ............................................ 459
22 Situation in France: The Position of a Federation of
Environmental Protection NGOs .............................. 463
José Cambou and Dominique Proy ............................. 463
23 Situation in France: The Position of a Consumer
Protection Group ........................................... 475
Christian Huard and Bernard Umbrecht ...................... 475
23.1 French National Consumer Council ...................... 475
23.2 Consumer Information: Failings and Modest Steps
Forward ............................................... 477
23.3 The Need to Go Beyond Labels. A New Form of
Governance ............................................ 480
24 Situation in France: The Principle of Precaution ........... 483
François Ewald ............................................. 483
24.1 Definition ............................................ 483
24.2 Legal Status of the Precautionary Principle ........... 487
24.3 Decisional Aspects of the Precautionary Principle ..... 488
24.3.1 Risk Assessment ................................ 489
24.3.2 Risk Management ................................ 489
24.3.3 Communication .................................. 490
24.4 Beyond the Principle of Precaution .................... 490
Part V Nanoethics and Regulation: The Situation in Europe
and the World
25 Situation in Europe and the World: A Code of Conduct
for Responsible European Research in Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology ............................................. 497
Philippe Galiay ............................................ 497
25.1 Introduction .......................................... 497
25.2 European Research ..................................... 498
25.3 EC Research and Nanotechnology ........................ 499
25.3.1 EC Strategy and Action Plan for Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology ............................. 500
25.3.2 Support for Research in Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology ................................. 500
25.4 Science in Society .................................... 501
25.4.1 Toward a Governance That Makes More Allowance
for Scientific Knowledge ....................... 502
25.4.2 Elaboration, Dissemination, and Application
of Ethical Rules ............................... 502
25.5 EC Recommendation for a Code of Conduct ............... 503
25.5.1 Choice of Recommendation ....................... 503
25.5.2 Content of Recommendation ...................... 503
25.5.3 The Code of Conduct ............................ 504
25.5.4 Code of Conduct and Ethical Review ............. 506
25.5.5 Code of Conduct and Regulation ................. 507
25.5.6 Code of Conduct and International Dialogue ..... 507
25.6 Conclusion ............................................ 508
References ................................................. 508
26 Situation in Europe and the World: Societal Risks and
Benefits of New Nanometric Products ........................ 511
Jean-Marc Brignon .......................................... 511
26.1 Socio-Economic Assessment of Chemical Substances in
Europe ................................................ 511
26.2 Does the REACH Regulation Apply to Nanometric
Products? ............................................. 512
26.3 Limitations of Cost-Benefit Analysis in the Case of
Nanotechnology ........................................ 513
26.4 Using the Results of Socio-Economic Analysis.
The Precautionary Principle ........................... 515
26.5 Beyond Risk and Precaution ............................ 515
References ................................................. 516
27 Situation in Europe and the World: The European
Nanotechnology Observatory ................................. 519
M. Morrison ................................................ 519
27.1 The Role of the Observatory NANO Project .............. 519
27.2 Approach Taken by the ObservatoryNANO ................. 520
27.3 Interaction with Other Organizations .................. 521
27.3.1 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) ............................. 521
27.3.2 International Activities in Standards .......... 522
27.3.3 European Technology Platforms (ETPs) and
Joint Technology Initiatives (JTIs) ............ 522
27.3.4 Manufacturing Initiatives ...................... 522
27.4 Science and Technology Assessment ..................... 524
27.4.1 Publication Analysis ........................... 527
27.4.2 Patent Analysis ................................ 528
27.5 Economic Analysis ..................................... 528
27.6 Integrating an Analysis of the Wider Aspects of
Nanotechnology Development ............................ 534
27.6.1 Ethical and Societal Aspects ................... 535
27.6.2 Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) Issues .... 535
27.6.3 Developments in Regulation and Standards ....... 536
27.7 Supporting Research and Business ...................... 537
27.8 Establishing a Permanent European Observatory on
Nanotechnologies ...................................... 538
27.9 Conclusion and Future Work ............................ 538
27.10 About the Project Consortium ......................... 539
References ................................................. 539
28 Situation in Europe and the World: Nanotechnology and
Scientific Policy. Action of UN Agencies in Developing
Countries .................................................. 541
Shamila Nair-Bedouelle ..................................... 541
28.1 Scientific Policy for Sustainable Development ......... 541
28.2 Missions of Specialised UN Agencies ................... 542
28.3 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) ............... 543
28.3.1 Objectives ..................................... 543
28.3.2 Current Status of MDGs ......................... 543
28.4 Nanotechnology and Politics ........................... 544
28.5 Other Political Considerations Regarding
Nanotechnology: Patents ............................... 546
28.6 Needs of Developing Countries ......................... 547
28.7 The Future: Nanotechnology and Development ............ 548
References ................................................. 548
29 Nanotechnology and the Law ................................ 551
Sonia Desmoulin-Canselier and Stéphanie Lacour ............. 551
29.1 The Law in the Face of Societal Concerns over Nano-
Objects and Nanotechnology ............................ 552
29.1.1 How to Account for Uncertain, Even Fuzzy
Risks .......................................... 554
29.1.2 Taking into Account the Life Cycle of
Nanoproducts ................................... 557
29.2 The Law in the Face of Nanotechnology Development
Policies .............................................. 559
29.2.1 The Territoriality of the Law in a Context
of International Competition ................... 560
29.2.2 The Specificity of the Law and Alternative
Means of Regulation ............................ 563
References ................................................. 565
Part VI Nanoethics and Social Issues
30 How the Risks of Nanotechnology Are Perceived .............. 573
Daniel Boy and Solange Martin .............................. 573
30.1 Criteria Giving Structure to Perception ............... 573
30.2 Nanotechnology: A Checklist of Risk Perception ........ 575
30.2.1 The Attitude Toward Nanotechnology in France ... 575
30.2.2 Attitudes Toward Nanotechnology in the
European Union ................................. 577
30.2.3 European Experts and the Different
Applications of Nanotechnology ................. 580
30.3 What Should Be Done with Perceptions? ................. 583
References ................................................. 585
31 Robotics, Ethics, and Nanotechnology ....................... 587
Jean-Gabriel Ganascia ...................................... 587
31.1 Preliminaries ......................................... 587
31.2 Prehistory and History of Robot Ethics ................ 588
31.3 Roboethics ............................................ 590
31.3.1 A Roadmap for Roboethics ....................... 591
31.3.2 Ethics of Virtual Robots ....................... 593
31.3.3 Responsibility Toward Robots ................... 595
31.4 Extrapolation to Nanoscience .......................... 596
31.4.1 Reality and Virtuality ......................... 596
31.4.2 Do We Need a Roadmap for Nanoethics? ........... 597
31.4.3 Collision and Contamination Between Spheres
of Intelligibility ............................. 598
References ................................................. 599
32 Ethics and Industrial Production ........................... 601
Daniel Bernard ............................................. 601
32.1 Some Observations ..................................... 603
32.2 Strategy .............................................. 606
32.3 Safety ................................................ 607
32.4 Acquisition of Knowledge .............................. 609
32.5 Transparency .......................................... 611
32.6 Conclusion ............................................ 612
References ................................................. 612
Index ......................................................... 613
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