1. General Introduction ........................................ 1
A. Ahnell and H. O'Leary
1. Environmental technology ................................ 1
2. The beginning ........................................... 1
3. The environmental effects of the oil industry ........... 2
3.1. Air emissions ..................................... 2
3.2. Water management .................................. 5
3.3. Waste management .................................. 7
4. Technology used in the oil industry .................... 10
4.1. Pollution control ................................ 10
4.2. Pollution prevention ............................. 12
5. Oil Industry future: design for the environment ........ 13
5.1. Design out the production problems ............... 13
6. Summary ................................................ 15
References ................................................. 15
2. Environmental Control Technology for Oilfield Processes .... 17
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction ........................................... 17
2. Environmental control technology ....................... 20
3. Evolution of environmentally controlled oilfield
processes .............................................. 21
3.1. Scope and characteristics of oilfield ECT ........ 23
3.2. Methodology of ECT design ........................ 25
4. ECT analysis of drilling process ....................... 28
4.1. Mechanisms of drilling waste discharge ........... 28
4.2. Sources of drilling waste toxicity ............... 36
4.3. Waste generation mechanisms in petroleum
production ....................................... 38
4.4. Sources of toxicity in produced water ............ 42
References ............................................. 48
3. Environmental Control of Well Integrity .................... 53
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction ........................................... 53
2. Mechanism of cement seal failures ...................... 53
3. Improved cementing for annular integrity ............... 56
4. Cement pulsation after placement ....................... 57
5. Integrity of injection wells ........................... 60
6. Measurements of well integrity ......................... 63
7. Sustained casinghead pressure .......................... 65
7.1. Rig methods for SCP isolation .................... 66
7.2. Rig-less technology for SCP isolation ............ 68
References ............................................. 71
4. Environmental Control of Drilling Fluids and
Produced Water ............................................. 77
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Control of drilling fluid volume ....................... 77
1.1. Control of mud dispersibility .................... 77
1.2. Improved solids-control-closed-loop systems ...... 79
1.3. Dewatering of drilling fluids: 'dry' drilling
location ......................................... 82
2. Control of drilling fluid toxicity ..................... 85
2.1. Drilling fluid toxicity testing .................. 85
2.2. Low-toxicity substitutes ......................... 87
2.3. Synthetic base drilling fluids ................... 88
2.4. Source separation - drill cuttings de-oiling ..... 90
3. Control of produced water volume ....................... 93
3.1. Source reduction - water shut-off technology ..... 94
3.2. Source separation - downhole oil/gas/water
separation ....................................... 96
3.3. Source reduction with downhole water sink ........ 99
4. Control of produced water pollutants .................. 103
4.1. Oil-free water from DWS drainage-production
systems ......................................... 104
4.2. Deoiling of produced water ...................... 107
4.3. Removal of dissolved organics from produced
water ........................................... 111
4.4. Produced water salinity reduction ............... 112
References ................................................ 113
5. Oilfield Waste Disposal Control ........................... 123
A.K. Wojtanowicz
1. Introduction .......................................... 123
2. Oilfield waste disposal to land ....................... 124
2.1. Impact of oilfield pit contaminants ............. 124
2.2. Oilfield pit sampling and evaluation ............ 126
2.3. Oilfield pit closure: liquid phase .............. 127
2.4. Oilfield pit closure: solid phase ............... 127
3. Subsurface waste disposal to wells .................... 129
3.1. Description of slurry injection process of
muds and cuttings ............................... 133
3.2. Slurry fracture injection of muds and
cuttings ........................................ 139
3.3. Properties of injected slurries ................. 144
3.4. Environmental implications of subsurface
slurry injection ................................ 145
3.5. Periodic injection to multiple fractures ........ 147
References ................................................ 151
6. Drilling and Production Discharges in the Marine
Environment ............................................... 155
A.B. Doyle, S.S.R. Pappworth, and D.D. Caudle
1. Introduction .......................................... 155
2. Nature of offshore discharges ......................... 157
2.1. Produced water .................................. 157
2.2. Drilling waste .................................. 158
2.3. Magnitude of waste discharges ................... 160
2.4. Accidental discharges ........................... 161
2.5. Wastes that require handling during site
abandonment ..................................... 164
3. Potential impacts on the environment .................. 165
3.1. Introduction .................................... 165
3.2. Potential impacts from produced water ........... 166
3.3. Potential impacts from drilling waste ........... 167
3.4. Potential impacts from treating chemicals ....... 168
3.5. Potential impacts from accidental discharges .... 168
4. Regulatory approaches ................................. 170
4.1. Regulations for waste discharges ................ 170
4.2. OSPAR agreements and national regulations
for the OSPAR area .............................. 171
4.3. United states regulations ....................... 172
4.4. Comparing and contrasting OSPAR
and United States EPA regulations ............... 174
4.5. Russian and former Soviet Republics
regulations ..................................... 175
4.6. Other regulatory systems ........................ 175
4.7. Accidental discharges ........................... 175
5. Should the release be re-mediated? .................... 184
6. Sources of data on discharges to the marine
environment ........................................... 185
References ................................................ 186
7. Decommissioning of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations ..... 189
M.D. Day
1. Introduction .......................................... 189
2. Legal framework of platform decommissioning ........... 190
3. Planning .............................................. 195
4. Abandonment phases .................................... 195
4.1. Well abandonment ................................ 196
4.2. Preabandonment surveys/data gathering ........... 196
4.3. Engineering ..................................... 197
4.4. Decommissioning ................................. 199
4.5. Structure removal ............................... 201
4.6. Disposal ........................................ 209
4.7. Site clearance .................................. 211
5. Conclusion ............................................ 212
References ................................................ 212
8. Tanker Design: Recent Developments from an
Environmental Perspective ................................. 215
G. Peet
1. Introduction .......................................... 215
2. Tanker accidents ...................................... 216
3. Tanker design ......................................... 219
4. New tanker design standards: the USA takes the lead ... 220
5. New tanker designs: the international debate
in the early 1990s .................................... 221
6. Some developments since the adoption of the new
MARPOL regulations in 1992 ............................ 225
7. Some observations regarding the effectiveness of
MARPOL's double hull requirements ..................... 226
8. Epilogue .............................................. 227
References ................................................ 228
9. Pipeline Technology ....................................... 229
A.A. Ryder and S.C. Rapson
1. Introduction .......................................... 229
2. Environmental pressures ............................... 231
3. Onshore pipelines ..................................... 232
3.1. Design .......................................... 233
3.2. Construction .................................... 237
3.3. Operation ....................................... 250
3.4. Decommissioning ................................. 256
4. Offshore pipelines .................................... 256
4.1. Design .......................................... 256
4.2. Construction .................................... 258
4.3. Operation ....................................... 265
4.4. Decommissioning ................................. 267
5. Pipeline landfalls .................................... 267
5.1. Design .......................................... 268
5.2. Construction .................................... 270
References ................................................ 279
10. Environmental Management and Technology in Oil
Refineries ................................................ 281
H. Amiry, H. Sutherland, E. Martin, and P. Goodsell
1. Function of an oil refinery ........................... 281
2. Overview .............................................. 282
3. Control of atmospheric emissions ...................... 283
3.1. Minimizing combustion-related emissions ......... 284
3.2. Minimizing flare-related emissions .............. 289
3.3. Minimizing fugitive emissions ................... 289
3.4. Odour control ................................... 292
3.5. Sulphur removal and recovery .................... 293
4. Control of aqueous emissions .......................... 295
4.1. Source control .................................. 296
4.2. Effluent treatment .............................. 298
5. Soil and groundwater protection ....................... 301
5.1. Source control .................................. 301
5.2. Monitoring ...................................... 302
5.3. Remediation ..................................... 303
5.4. Preventive techniques ........................... 303
6. Control of solid wastes ............................... 304
6.1. Source control .................................. 304
6.2. Waste treatment ................................. 306
6.3. Waste disposal .................................. 308
7. Recycling to minimize waste ........................... 311
7.1. Reuse on-site ................................... 311
7.2. Off-site recycling .............................. 311
8. Environmental management .............................. 312
8.1. Environmental control ........................... 312
8.2. Environmental training .......................... 313
8.3. Environmental auditing .......................... 314
References ................................................ 314
11. Distribution, Marketing and Use of Petroleum Fuels ........ 315
T. Coley and J. Price
1. Introduction........................................... 315
2. Main refinery product types ........................... 315
3. Protection of the environment ......................... 317
3.1. The atmosphere .................................. 317
3.2. Sea waters: compliance with maritime
regulations ..................................... 319
3.3. Soil and groundwater ............................ 319
4. Distributing the products ............................. 320
4.1. Distribution systems ............................. 320
5. Anti-pollution controls ............................... 322
5.1. The atmosphere ................................... 322
5.2. The high seas ................................... 322
5.3. Coastal and inland waterways .................... 324
5.4. Soil and groundwater ............................ 325
6. Marketing the products ................................ 327
6.1. Large industrial customer installations ......... 327
6.2. Small industrial and domestic customers ......... 328
6.3. Service stations ................................ 328
7. Environmental technologies related to product use ..... 329
7.1. Fuels ........................................... 329
7.2. Marine diesel engines and fuels ................. 329
7.3. Fuels for large industrial power plants ......... 332
7.4. Fuels for small industrial and domestic
installations ................................... 332
7.5. Aircraft engines and fuels ...................... 334
7.6. Engines for rail transport ...................... 335
7.7. Automotive engines .............................. 335
7.8. Into the next millenium ......................... 347
Further reading 347
12. Lubricants ................................................ 351
C.I. Betton
1. Introduction .......................................... 351
2. Performance ........................................... 353
3. Components ............................................ 353
4. Base fluids ........................................... 354
5. Mineral oils .......................................... 354
6. Synthetic base oils ................................... 356
6.1. Polyol esters ................................... 356
6.2. Poly-α-olefins .................................. 356
7. Hydrocracked mineral oils ............................. 357
8. Additives ............................................. 357
9. Actual environmental effects .......................... 358
10. Biodegradability ...................................... 359
10.1. Biodegradation is not necessary in
a lubricant ..................................... 360
10.2. A biodegradable lubricant will encourage
dumping at the expense of collection and
disposal ........................................ 360
10.3. A biodegradable lubricant will degrade
in the engine ................................... 360
10.4. A biodegradable lubricant will result in
high concentrations of toxic residues that
are detrimental to the environment .............. 361
10.5. Biodegradation is not necessary, as motor
manufacturers are now producing sealed
lubricant systems ............................... 361
11. Collection and recycling of used oils ................. 361
12. Conclusion ........................................... 363
References ................................................ 364
13. Climate Change Scenarios and Their Potential Impact
on World Agriculture ...................................... 367
C. Wallace and D. Viner
1. What causes the climate system to change? ............. 367
2. Past climatic changes ................................. 369
3. Anthropogenic forcing of the climate system ........... 372
4. Future changes in anthropogenic forcing ............... 374
5. Implications of SRES scenarios on global climate ...... 375
5.1. Temperature ..................................... 376
5.2. Precipitation ................................... 377
5.3. Sea level rise .................................. 378
5.4. Mitigation possibilities within the
agricultural sector ............................. 379
6. Implications of SRES scenarios on regional climate .... 379
6.1. Europe .......................................... 379
6.2. North America ................................... 385
7. Impacts of future climate change on agriculture ....... 385
7.1. Europe .......................................... 386
7.2. North America ................................... 387
References ................................................ 388
Color Plates .................................................. 391
Index ......................................................... 397
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