List of Contributors ......................................... xiii
Series Editors' Foreword ..................................... xvii
Preface ....................................................... xix
1. The Challenge of Wear ....................................... 1
I.M. Hutchings
Abstract .................................................... 1
1.1. Introduction .......................................... 1
1.2. Definitions and Development of Wear Studies ........... 1
1.3. Scope and Challenges .................................. 2
1.4. Conclusions ........................................... 6
References .................................................. 6
2. Classification of Wear Mechanisms/Models .................... 9
K. Kato
Abstract .................................................... 9
2.1. Introduction .......................................... 9
2.2. Classification of Wear Mechanisms and Wear Modes ..... 10
2.2.1. Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal Wear ........ 10
2.2.2. Wear Modes: Abrasive, Adhesive, Flow and
Fatigue Wear ................................. 11
2.2.3. Corrosive Wear ............................... 14
2.2.4. Melt and Diffusive Wear ...................... 15
2.3. General Discussion of Wear Mechanisms and Their
Models ............................................... 15
2.3.1. Material Dependence .......................... 15
2.3.2. Wear Maps .................................... 16
2.3.3. Wear Mode Transition ......................... 17
2.3.4. Erosion ...................................... 17
2.4. Conclusion ........................................... 18
Acknowledgements ........................................... 18
References ................................................. 18
3. Wear of Metals: A Material Approach ........................ 21
S.K. Biswas
Abstract ................................................... 21
3.1. Introduction ......................................... 21
3.2. Mild Wear and Transition to Severe Wear .............. 22
3.2.1. Mild Wear .................................... 22
3.2.2. Transition to Severe Wear .................... 23
3.3. Strain Rate Estimates and Bulk Surface Temperature ... 27
3.3.1. Strain Rate Response Maps .................... 28
3.3.2. Bulk Surface Temperature ..................... 30
3.3.3. The Phenomenological Argument ................ 30
3.3.4. Micrographic Observations .................... 31
3.4. Summary .............................................. 34
3.4.1. Homogeneous Deformation - Severe Wear ........ 34
3.4.2. Homogeneous Deformation - Mild Wear .......... 35
3.4.3. Inhomogeneous Deformation - Severe Wear ...... 35
Acknowledgements ........................................... 35
References ................................................. 35
4. Boundary Lubricated Wear ................................... 37
S.M. Hsu, R.G. Munro, M.C. Shen, and R.S. Gates
Abstract ................................................... 37
4.1. Introduction ......................................... 37
4.2. Lubricated Wear Classification ....................... 38
4.3. Lubricated Wear Versus "Dry" Wear .................... 38
4.4. Wear Measurement in Well-Lubricated Systems .......... 42
4.5. Measurement Procedures ............................... 44
4.5.1. Run-in Process ............................... 46
4.5.2. General Performance Wear Test (GPT) .......... 49
4.5.3. Enhanced Oxidation Wear Test (EOT) ........... 52
4.5.4. Boundary Film Persistence Test (BFPT) ........ 53
4.5.5. Case Study with GPT and BFPT ................. 55
4.5.6. Boundary Film Failure Test (BFFT) ............ 57
4.6. Wear Mechanisms Under Lubricated Conditions .......... 61
4.7. Modeling of Lubricated Wear .......................... 65
4.7.1. Wear ......................................... 65
4.7.2. Contact Area ................................. 65
4.7.3. Rheology ..................................... 66
4.7.4. Film Thickness ............................... 67
4.7.5. Contact Stress ............................... 67
4.7.6. Flash Temperatures ........................... 67
4.8. Summary .............................................. 68
Acknowledgments ............................................ 69
References ................................................. 69
5. Wear and Chemistry of Lubricants ........................... 71
A. Neville and A. Morina
5.1. Encountering Wear in Tribological Contacts ........... 71
5.2. Lubricant Formulations - Drivers for Change .......... 73
5.3. Tribochemistry and Wear .............................. 76
5.4. Antiwear Additive Technologies ....................... 77
5.4.1. Antiwear Technologies ........................ 77
5.4.2. ZDDP - Antiwear Mechanism .................... 78
5.4.3. Interaction of ZDDP with Other Additives ..... 83
5.4.4. New Antiwear Additive Technologies ........... 87
5.5. Extreme Pressure Additives ........................... 88
5.6. Lubricating Non-Fe Materials ......................... 89
References ................................................. 90
6. Surface Chemistry in Tribology ............................. 95
A.J. Gellman and N.D. Spencer
Abstract ................................................... 95
6.1. Introduction ......................................... 95
6.2. Boundary Lubrication and Oiliness Additives .......... 95
6.2.1. Introduction ................................. 95
6.2.2. Monolayers, Multilayers and Soaps ............ 96
6.2.3. Viscous Near-Surface Layers ................. 102
6.2.4. Boundary Lubrication in Natural Joints ...... 102
6.2.5. Summary ..................................... 103
6.3. Zinc Dialkyldithiophosphate ......................... 103
6.3.1. Background .................................. 103
6.3.2. Analytical Approaches ....................... 104
6.3.3. Summary of Film-Formation Mechanism ......... 104
6.3.4. Studies of Film Structure, Composition,
and Thickness ............................... 105
6.4. Hard Disk Lubrication ............................... 109
6.5. Vapor-Phase Lubrication ............................. 112
6.6. Tribology of Quasicrystals .......................... 115
6.7. Conclusions ......................................... 118
Acknowledgments ........................................... 118
References ................................................ 118
7. Tribology of Engineered Surfaces .......................... 123
K. Holmberg and A. Matthews
Abstract .................................................. 123
7.1. Introduction ........................................ 123
7.2. Definition of an Engineered Surface ................. 125
7.3. Tribomechanisms of Coated Surfaces .................. 125
7.3.1. Scales of Tribology ......................... 125
7.3.2. Macromechanical Friction and Wear ........... 126
7.3.3. Micromechanical Mechanisms .................. 131
7.3.4. Modelling Stresses and Strains in a Coated
Microcontact ................................ 132
7.3.5. Tribochemical Mechanisms .................... 133
7.3.6. Nanoscale Mechanisms ........................ 135
7.3.7. Debris Generation and Transfer Layers ....... 136
7.4. Contact Types ....................................... 139
7.4.1. Sliding ..................................... 139
7.4.2. Abrasion .................................... 141
7.4.3. Impact ...................................... 141
7.4.4. Surface Fatigue ............................. 141
7.4.5. Fretting .................................... 142
7.4.6. Chemical Dissolution ........................ 143
7.4.7. Lubricated .................................. 143
7.5. Advanced Coating Types .............................. 144
7.5.1. Hard Binary Compound Coatings ............... 145
7.5.2. Multilayer Coatings ......................... 146
7.5.3. Nanocomposite Coatings ...................... 149
7.5.4. Hybrid and Duplex Coatings .................. 151
7.6. Applications ........................................ 152
7.7. Conclusions ......................................... 154
References ................................................ 155
8. Wear of Ceramics: Wear Transitions and Tribochemical
Reactions ................................................. 167
S. Jahanmir
Abstract .................................................. 167
8.1. Introduction ........................................ 168
8.2. Structure and Properties of Ceramics ................ 168
8.2.1. Alumina Ceramics ............................ 168
8.2.2. Silicon Nitride Ceramics .................... 169
8.2.3. Silicon Carbide Ceramics .................... 170
8.3. Wear Transitions .................................... 170
8.3.1. Alumina ..................................... 171
8.3.2. Silicon Nitride ............................. 174
8.3.3. Silicon Carbide ............................. 175
8.4. Damage Formation in Hertzian Contacts ............... 177
8.4.1. Brittle Behavior ............................ 177
8.4.2. Quasi-Plastic Behavior ...................... 177
8.4.3. Brittleness Index ........................... 180
8.5. Transition Loads in Sliding Contacts ................ 181
8.5.1. Quasi-Plastic Behavior ...................... 181
8.5.2. Brittle Behavior ............................ 183
8.5.3. Transition from Brittle Fracture to Quasi-
Plasticity .................................. 184
8.6. Ceramics in Tribological Applications ............... 185
Acknowledgments ........................................... 187
References ................................................ 187
9. Tribology of Diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon Films: An
Overview .................................................. 191
A. Erdemir and Ch. Donnet
Abstract .................................................. 191
9.1. General Overview .................................... 192
9.2. Diamond Films ....................................... 194
9.2.1. Deposition and Film Microstructure .......... 194
9.2.2. Tribology of Diamond Films .................. 195
9.2.3. Practical Applications ...................... 204
9.3. Diamond-like Carbon Films ........................... 207
9.3.1. Structure and Composition ................... 207
9.3.2. Tribology of DLC Films ...................... 209
9.3.3. Synthesis of Carbon Films with
Superlow-Friction and -Wear Properties ...... 215
9.3.4. Practical Applications ...................... 217
9.4. Summary and Future Direction ........................ 219
Acknowledgments ........................................... 219
References ................................................ 220
10. Tribology of Polymeric Solids and Their Composites ........ 223
B.J. Briscoe and S.K. Sinha
Abstract .................................................. 223
10.1. Introduction ........................................ 224
10.2. The Mechanisms of Polymer Friction .................. 225
10.2.1. The Ploughing Term - Brief Summary .......... 225
10.2.2. The Adhesion Term - Brief Summary ........... 227
10.3. Wear ................................................ 228
10.3.1. Semantics and Rationalizations .............. 228
10.3.2. Wear Classification Based on Generic
Scaling Responses ........................... 230
10.3.3. Phenomenological Classification of Wear
Damages ..................................... 232
10.3.4. Wear Classification Based on Polymeric
Responses ................................... 240
10.4. Tribology of Polymer Composites ..................... 249
10.4.1. 'Soft and Lubricating' Phases in a Harder
Matrix ...................................... 249
10.4.2. 'Hard and Strong' Phases in a 'Soft'
Matrix ...................................... 250
10.4.3. Hybrid Polymer Composites ................... 253
10.5. Environmental and Lubrication Effects ............... 254
10.6. A Case Study: Polymers in Hip and Knee Prosthetic
Applications -Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight
Poly(ethylene) (UHMWPE) ............................. 256
10.7. Concluding Remarks .................................. 260
Acknowledgements .......................................... 261
References ................................................ 261
11. Wear of Polymer Composites ................................ 269
K. Friedrich, Z. Zhang and P. Klein
Abstract .................................................. 269
11.1. Introduction ........................................ 269
11.2. Sliding Wear of Filler Reinforced Polymer
Composites .......................................... 270
11.2.1. Short Fibres and Internal Lubricants ........ 270
11.2.2. PTFE Matrix Composites ...................... 272
11.2.3. Micro- and Nanoparticle Reinforcements ...... 275
11.2.4. Integration of Traditional Fillers with
Inorganic Nanoparticles ..................... 277
11.2.5. Functionally Graded Tribo-Materials ......... 279
11.3. Artificial Neural Networks Approach for Wear
Prediction .......................................... 280
11.4. Fibre Orientation, Wear Mechanisms and Stress
Conditions in Continuous Fibre Reinforced
Composites .......................................... 282
11.5. Conclusions ......................................... 286
Acknowledgements .......................................... 286
References ................................................ 287
12. Third-Body Reality - Consequences and Use of the Third-
Body Concept to Solve Friction and Wear Problems .......... 291
Y. Berthier
Abstract .................................................. 291
12.1. Introduction ........................................ 292
12.2. Relationship Between the Third Body and Friction .... 292
12.2.1. Boundary Conditions ......................... 292
12.2.2. Friction Analysis ........................... 292
12.3. Relationship Between the Third Body and Wear ........ 293
12.3.1. Wear Laws ................................... 293
12.3.2. Material Hardness and Wear .................. 294
12.4. What Methods Exist for Studying Friction and
Wear? ............................................... 294
12.4.1. The Scientific Context Surrounding
Tribology ................................... 294
12.4.2. Physical Difficulties Related to Studying
Contacts .................................... 295
12.4.3. So Where to from Here? ...................... 297
12.5. The Third-Body Concept .............................. 298
12.5.1. Artificial and Natural Third Bodies ......... 298
12.5.2. Contact Without the Third Body .............. 299
12.5.3. Types of "Solid" Third Body from the
Mechanical Viewpoint ........................ 299
12.5.4. "Action Heights" of Third Bodies ............ 300
12.6. Functions and Behaviour of the Third Body ........... 300
12.6.1. Functions of the Third Body ................. 300
12.6.2. Operation of Solid Third Bodies ............. 301
12.6.3. Tribological Circuit of Third-Body Flows .... 302
12.6.4. Rheology of the Third Body .................. 303
12.6.5. Scientific and Technological Consequences
of the Tribological Circuit ................. 303
12.7. Roles of the Materials in a Tribological Contact .... 304
12.7.1. Indirect Role of the Materials - Scale of
the Actual Mechanism or Mechanical Device ... 304
12.7.2. Direct Role of the Materials - Scale
of First Bodies ............................. 304
12.7.3. Optimal Direct Response of Material to
the Tribological Contact .................... 305
12.7.4. Consequences on the Approach Used for
Solving Technological Problems .............. 306
12.8. Taking into Account the Effects of the Mechanism .... 306
12.8.1. Choosing the Conditions to be Modelled ...... 306
12.8.2. Technological Consequences of the Effects
of the Mechanism ............................ 307
12.9. Taking into Account the Effect of the First
Bodies .............................................. 307
12.9.1. Local Contact Dynamics ...................... 307
12.9.2. Technological Consequences of the Effects
of the First Bodies ......................... 307
12.10."Solid" Natural Third-Body Modelling ................ 308
12.10.1.Reconstruction of the Tribological
Circuit ..................................... 308
12.10.2.Technological Consequences of the Third
Body ........................................ 309
12.11.Correspondence of the Strategy Proposed to
Reality ............................................. 310
12.12.Control of Input Conditions ......................... 310
12.12.1.Objectives .................................. 310
12.12.2.Procedure ................................... 311
12.12.3.Precautions ................................. 311
12.13.Performing Experiments .............................. 312
12.13.1.Initial Conditions .......................... 312
12.13.2.Exterior of the Contact ..................... 313
12.13.3.Interior of the Contact ..................... 313
12.14.Conclusions ......................................... 314
Acknowledgements .......................................... 314
References ................................................ 315
13. Basic Principles of Fretting .............................. 317
P. Kapsa, S. Fouvry and L. Vincent
Abstract .................................................. 317
13.1. Introduction ........................................ 317
13.2. Wear ................................................ 319
13.3. Industrial Needs .................................... 320
13.4. Fretting in Assemblies .............................. 321
13.5. Fretting Processes .................................. 322
13.6. Fretting Parameters ................................. 330
13.6.1. Nature of Loading ........................... 330
13.6.2. Nature of the First Bodies .................. 331
13.6.3. Coatings .................................... 332
13.6.4. Environment ................................. 334
13.6.5. Frequency ................................... 335
13.6.6. Temperature ................................. 335
13.7. Conclusions ......................................... 336
References ................................................ 337
14. Characterization and Classification of Abrasive
Particles and Surfaces .................................... 339
G.W. Stachowiak, G.B. Stachowiak, D. De Pellegrin
and P. Podsiadlo
Abstract .................................................. 339
14.1. Introduction ........................................ 340
14.2. General Descriptors of Particle Shape ............... 340
14.3. Particle Angularity Parameters ...................... 341
14.3.1. Angularity Parameters SP and SPQ and Their
Relation to Abrasive and Erosive Wear ....... 342
14.3.2. Cone-Fit Analysis (CFA) ..................... 344
14.3.3. Sharpness Analysis .......................... 349
14.4. Particle Size Effect in Abrasive Wear ............... 353
14.5. Sharpness of Surfaces ............................... 356
14.5.1. Characterization of Surface Sharpness by
the Modified SPQ Method ..................... 356
14.5.2. Characterization of Surface Sharpness by
SA .......................................... 358
14.6. Classification of Abrasive Surfaces ................. 359
14.7. Summary ............................................. 364
Acknowledgements .......................................... 365
References ................................................ 365
15. Wear Mapping of Materials ................................. 369
S.M. Hsu and M.C. Shen
15.1. Introduction ........................................ 369
15.1.1. Wear - A System Perspective ................. 370
15.1.2. Historical Material Selection Guide ......... 370
15.2. Basic Definition of Wear ............................ 372
15.2.1. Nature of Wear .............................. 372
15.2.2. Wear Characterization ....................... 372
15.3. Wear as a System Function ........................... 375
15.4. Wear Maps as a Classification Tool to Define
the System .......................................... 376
15.5. Wear as an "Intrinsic" Material Property as
Defined by Wear Maps ................................ 377
15.6. Different Kinds of Wear Maps ........................ 378
15.7. Application of Wear Maps ............................ 380
15.7.1. Material Comparison Based on Wear Maps ...... 381
15.7.2. Wear Transition Diagrams .................... 385
15.7.3. Material Selection Guided by Wear Maps ...... 389
15.7.4. Wear Mechanism Identification ............... 391
15.7.5. Wear Modeling Guide Based on Wear Maps ...... 396
15.7.6. Wear Prediction Based on Wear Maps .......... 405
15.8. Construction Techniques of Wear Maps ................ 411
15.8.1. Conducting Wear Experiments ................. 411
15.8.2. Wear Data ................................... 412
15.8.3. Data Trend Analysis ......................... 413
15.8.4. Wear Mapping ................................ 414
15.8.5. Selection of Parameters for Mapping ......... 416
15.8.6. Assumptions in the Step-Loading Test
Procedure ................................... 418
15.9. Application Map Concept and Examples ................ 420
15.10.Future Wear Map Research ............................ 421
References ................................................ 422
16. Machine Failure and Its Avoidance - Tribology's
Contribution to Effective Maintenance of Critical
Machinery ................................................. 425
B.J. Roylance
Abstract .................................................. 425
16.1. Introduction ........................................ 425
16.2. Maintenance Practice and Tribological Principles .... 426
16.2.1. Maintenance Practice - A Brief Historical
Overview .................................... 426
16.2.2. Tribological Principles ..................... 427
16.2.3. Tribology and Maintenance ................... 431
16.3. Failure Diagnoses ................................... 432
16.3.1. Failure Morphology and Analysis ............. 432
16.3.2. Dealing with Failure - Two Short Case
Studies ..................................... 434
16.3.3. Comment ..................................... 436
16.4. Condition-Based Maintenance ......................... 436
16.5. Wear and Wear Debris Analysis ....................... 440
16.5.1. Wear Modes and Associated Debris
Characteristics - Some Experimental
Results and Their Application to RAF
Early Failure Detection Centres ............. 443
16.5.2. Summary of Laboratory Test Results .......... 445
16.5.3. Wear Particle Classification and
Application ................................. 446
16.6. Predicting the Remaining Useful Life and
Evaluating the Cost Benefits ........................ 448
16.6.1. Remaining Useful Life Predictions ........... 448
16.6.2. Evaluating the Cost Benefits ................ 449
16.7. Closure ............................................. 450
Acknowledgements .......................................... 450
References ................................................ 451
Index ......................................................... 453
|
