Preface ....................................................... VII
Acknowledgments ................................................ IX
Part I
Introduction to Primary Energy - Nonrenewable Sources ........... 1
1. Introduction to World Energy ................................ 3
1.1. Concepts in Energy and Definitions .................... 3
1.1.1. Significance of Energy Resources .............. 4
1.1.2. Broad Definition of Energy .................... 5
1.2. A Universal View of Energy ............................ 6
1.3. Energy Systems ........................................ 7
1.3.1. Laws of Energy and Energy Efficiency .......... 7
1.3.2. Equilibrium and Environmental Systems ......... 8
1.3.3. Energy Flow in Environmental Systems .......... 8
1.4. Future of Energy Industry ............................. 9
1.4.1. Introduction .................................. 9
1.4.2. Energy in 1990 to 2000 - Overview ............ 11
1.4.3. World Primary Energy Production Trends
Leading To 21st Century ...................... 11
1.4.4. Major Energy Producers and Consumers ......... 13
1.4.5. Regional Energy Production and Consumption ... 13
1.4.6. Petroleum .................................... 15
1.4.7. Natural Gas .................................. 15
1.4.8. Coal ......................................... 16
1.4.9. Hydroelectric Power .......................... 16
1.4.10. Nuclear Electric Power ....................... 17
1.4.11. Geothermal, Solar, Wind, and Wood and Waste
Electric Power ............................... 17
1.4.12. Carbon Dioxide Emission from the
Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels ...... 17
1.5. Fast Track Energy Markets ............................ 19
1.6. Economic and Demographic Variables ................... 20
1.6.1. Energy Use, Efficiency, and Population
Growth ....................................... 20
1.6.2. Global Population Growth ..................... 21
1.6.3. Population Growth and Industry ............... 21
1.6.4. Consumption Processes ........................ 22
1.6.5. Exponential Growth/Consumption of
Resources .................................... 23
1.6.6. Commodity Doubling Time ...................... 23
1.6.7. Commodity Expiration Time .................... 24
1.6.8. Globalization-A Global View of Energy Use .... 24
1.7. Some Mineral Economic Considerations ................. 25
1.7.1. Definition of Resources and Reserves ......... 25
1.7.2. Computation of Mineral and Mineral-Fuel
Reserves ..................................... 26
1.7.3. Estimation of Potential Resources ............ 26
1.7.4. Geological Example of Exploration
Evaluation ................................... 26
1.7.5. Assessment Methodologies For Nonfuel
Minerals ..................................... 27
1.8. Resource, Exploration, Conservation, and
Environmental Management Issues ...................... 27
1.8.1. Role of Geology .............................. 27
1.8.2. International Exploration Activity ........... 31
1.8.3. U.S. Environmental Concerns and
Regulations .................................. 31
1.8.4. Summary ...................................... 33
2. Historical Perspective of Energy ........................... 35
2.1. Historical Perspective ............................... 35
2.1.1. View of Energy in the Universe ............... 35
2.1.2. Early Energy Development In Europe and
North America ................................ 35
2.2. Historical Developments of World Oil Industry ........ 38
2.3. World Energy Demand .................................. 43
2.4. Long-Term Projections ................................ 44
2.5. World Energy Supplies ................................ 45
2.6. World Oil Demand ..................................... 47
2.7. Alternative Fuels for Transportation ................. 48
2.8. International Oil Complex ............................ 48
2.8.1. Essential Role of Oil ........................ 48
2.8.2. Evolution of International Oil Industry ...... 49
2.8.3. International Oil Consumption ................ 51
2.8.4. International Oil Supply ..................... 54
2.8.5. Technological Advancements ................... 56
2.8.6. Government Intervention ...................... 56
2.8.7. Expanded Opportunities ....................... 57
2.9. Summary .............................................. 60
3. World Primary Energy Overview .............................. 61
3.1. Perspective on Energy Resources ...................... 61
3.1.1. Overview of Energy Production and
Consumption .................................. 61
3.2. World Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources ............ 65
3.2.1. Historical Developments in Petroleum and
Natural Gas Markets .......................... 65
3.2.2. Composition .................................. 66
3.2.3. Occurrence ................................... 67
3.3. Global View .......................................... 71
3.3.1. Reserves ..................................... 71
3.3.2. Production and Consumption ................... 72
3.4. Position of United States in Petroleum and Natural
Gas Markets .......................................... 79
3.5. Future Trends ........................................ 80
4. World Coal Resources ....................................... 83
4.1. Coal Resources ....................................... 83
4.1.1. World Trends ................................. 83
4.1.2. History ...................................... 83
4.2. Composition .......................................... 87
4.3. Occurrence ........................................... 88
4.4. Global View .......................................... 89
4.4.1. Reserves and Resources ....................... 89
4.4.2. Production and Consumption ................... 89
4.5. Position of the United States ........................ 90
4.6. Future Trends ........................................ 95
4.6.1. Past Projections ............................. 95
4.6.2. Environmental Considerations ................. 95
4.6.3. Future Markets ............................... 95
4.7. Transportation of Coal ............................... 96
4.8. Clean Coal Technologies .............................. 98
4.8.1. Clean Combustion Cycles ...................... 98
4.8.1.1. Gasification Combined Cycle ........ 98
4.9. Summary .............................................. 99
5. Nuclear Energy ............................................ 101
5.1. Introduction to Nuclear Energy ...................... 101
5.1.1. Historical Perspective ...................... 101
5.1.2. Theoretical Basis ........................... 102
5.1.3. Nuclear Reactions ........................... 102
5.1.3.1. Nuclear Fission ................... 102
5.1.3.2. Nuclear Fusion .................... 103
5.2. Nuclear Reactors .................................... 103
5.2.1. Nuclear Reactor Technology .................. 104
5.2.1.1. Nuclear Reactor Design ............ 104
5.2.1.2. Nuclear Fuel ...................... 107
5.2.2. Spent Fuel Reprocessing ..................... 108
5.3. Global View ......................................... 109
5.3.1. Nuclear Energy Capacity ..................... 109
5.3.1.1. Dominant Countries ................ 109
5.3.1.2. Brief History ..................... 109
5.3.2. Production And Consumption of Nuclear
Energy ...................................... 112
5.3.2.1. International Markets ............. 112
5.4. Uraniums Production and Exploitation ................ 113
5.4.1. Early Developments .......................... 113
5.4.2. Geological Exploitation ..................... 113
5.4.3. Price Structure (U308) ...................... 114
5.4.4. Reserves and Resources ...................... 116
5.4.5. Production and Consumption .................. 118
5.5. Position of the United States ....................... 121
5.5.1. Nuclear Energy Capacity and Electricity
Generation .................................. 121
5.5.2. Uranium Resources ........................... 121
5.5.3. Cost Comparison - 1973 to 1981 .............. 122
5.6. Environmental Concerns .............................. 124
5.6.1. Radon Gas Hazard ............................ 124
5.6.2. Factors Affecting Future Trends ............. 124
5.6.2.1. Three Mile Island 1979 to 1986 .... 124
5.6.2.2. Rationale For Use ................. 125
5.6.2.3. Cost Overruns and Failures ........ 126
5.6.3. Summary ..................................... 127
6. Hydroelectric Power ....................................... 129
6.1. Resources ........................................... 129
6.2. Types of Powerplants ................................ 132
6.3. Total World Potential ............................... 133
6.3.1. Capacity .................................... 133
6.3.2. Environmental Drivers ....................... 133
6.4. Total World Production .............................. 134
6.5. Commercialization ................................... 137
6.6. Summary ............................................. 137
7. Meeting Future Demands for Energy Resources ............... 139
7.1. World Demand ........................................ 139
7.2. Policy Approaches ................................... 139
7.3. Conservations Measures .............................. 141
7.4. Advanced Vehicles ................................... 143
7.4.1. Use of Alternative Fuels For Automobiles .... 143
7.4.2. Gasohol Production .......................... 143
7.5. Methane in Coal Beds ................................ 144
7.6. Municipal Waste Fuels ............................... 146
7.7. Advanced Recovery and Discovery Methods ............. 147
7.7.1. Oil and Natural Gas ......................... 147
7.7.1.1. New Discoveries Through
Advanced Technologies ............. 147
7.7.1.2. Enhanced Recovery Technologies .... 148
7.7.2. Coal ........................................ 151
7.7.2.1. Coal Reserves ..................... 151
7.7.2.2. Underground Coal Gasification ..... 152
7.8. Nuclear Energy ...................................... 153
7.9. Summary ............................................. 153
Part II
Renewable Energy Sources and Alternative Energy
Technologies .................................................. 155
8. Geothermal Energy ......................................... 157
8.1. Basics of Geothermal Energy ......................... 157
8.2. Geothermal Heat Extraction .......................... 157
8.3. Resources and Production ............................ 158
8.3.1. Hydrothermal Systems ........................ 158
8.3.2. Geopressured Systems ........................ 160
8.3.3. Hot Dry Rocks ............................... 160
8.3.4. Magma ....................................... 160
8.4. History of Production ............................... 161
8.5. Geothermal Resources ................................ 161
8.6. United States Position .............................. 161
8.6.1. USA Estimates ............................... 161
8.6.2. Geysers Field ............................... 162
8.6.3. Other Research and Development .............. 162
8.7. Uses of Geothermal Energy ........................... 163
8.7.1. Generation of Electricity ................... 163
8.7.2. Space Heating ............................... 163
8.7.3. Miscellaneous Industrial Uses ............... 163
8.8. Developmental Problems .............................. 163
9. Solar Energy .............................................. 167
9.1. Solar Energy Demand ................................. 167
9.2. Major Drawbacks ..................................... 167
9.3. Utilization of Solar Energy ......................... 168
9.3.1. Direct Thermal .............................. 168
9.3.2. Solar Electric .............................. 169
9.3.3. Fuels From Biomass .......................... 170
9.4. Direct Thermal Applications ......................... 170
9.4.1. Passive Solar Heating ....................... 170
9.4.2. Active Solar Heating ........................ 170
9.5. Thermal Electric Conversion ......................... 171
9.6. Photovoltaic Conversion Through Solar Cells ......... 173
9.7. Summary ............................................. 174
10. Wind Energy ............................................... 175
10.1. Wind ................................................ 175
10.1.1. Wind Energy Conversion ...................... 175
10.1.2. Windmills ................................... 175
10.2. Demonstration Projects .............................. 177
10.3. Wind Turbine Generators ............................. 177
10.4. Summary ............................................. 178
11. Advanced Alternative Energy Sources ....................... 179
11.1. Introduction to Ocean Thermal Energy Generation ..... 179
11.1.1. Introduction ................................ 179
11.1.2. Ocean Thermal Energy Generation
(OTEC) ...................................... 179
11.2. Biomass Fuels ....................................... 180
11.3. Ocean Energy ........................................ 183
11.3.1. Tidal Power ................................. 183
11.3.2. Commercial Operations ....................... 184
11.4. Wave Power .......................................... 185
11.5. Controlled Nuclear Fusion Energy .................... 185
11.6. Fuel Cells .......................................... 188
11.6.1. Applications ................................ 188
11.6.2. Technologies ................................ 188
11.6.3. Advantages .................................. 189
11.6.4. Uses ........................................ 189
11.7. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Conversion ................ 190
11.7.1. Basic Principle ............................. 190
11.7.2. Systems ..................................... 190
11.8. Hydrogen Fuel ....................................... 190
11.8.1. Applications ................................ 191
11.8.2. Advantages .................................. 191
11.8.3. Drawbacks ................................... 191
11.9. Summary ............................................. 192
12. Nonrenewable Alternative Energy Resources and
Technologies .............................................. 193
12.1. Estimates of Energy Resources ....................... 193
12.2. Oil Shales .......................................... 194
12.2.1. KerogenOil .................................. 194
12.2.2. Resources and Production .................... 194
12.2.3. World Reserves .............................. 195
12.2.4. Recovery Technology ......................... 196
12.2.5. United States Position ...................... 196
12.2.6. History of Development ...................... 197
12.2.7. Development Factors ......................... 198
12.2.8. Development Problems ........................ 199
12.3. Tar Sands ........................................... 201
12.3.1. Composition ................................. 201
12.3.2. Resources and Production .................... 201
12.3.3. Technology .................................. 202
12.3.4. United States Position ...................... 203
12.3.5. Developmental Problems ...................... 203
12.4. Synthetic Fuels (Liquids and Cases) from Coal ....... 204
12.4.1. History ..................................... 204
12.4.2. Technology .................................. 204
12.4.3. United States Position ...................... 206
12.5. Summary ............................................. 206
13. Environmental Issues and Concerns in Energy ............... 207
13.1. Environmental Issues ................................ 207
13.1.1. Nuclear Energy Issues ....................... 207
13.1.2. Malfunctioning of Nuclear Reactors .......... 208
13.1.3. Risks From Low-Level Radiation From
Nuclear Reactors ............................ 211
13.2. Nuclear Waste Disposal .............................. 214
13.2.1. Low Level Waste ............................. 214
13.2.2. High Level Waste ............................ 214
13.2.3. Spent Fuel and Isotopes ..................... 217
13.2.4. Reprocessing Spent Fuel ..................... 218
13.2.5. Waste Disposal .............................. 218
13.2.6. Nuclear Waste Policy Act .................... 219
13.3. Political Considerations ............................ 220
13.4. Non-Proliferation Efforts ........................... 220
13.5. Nuclear Fuel and Technology ......................... 221
13.6. Terrorist Activity .................................. 222
13.7. Breeder Reactor Technology Research ................. 222
13.8. Conservations of Uranium ............................ 222
13.9. Research Programs ................................... 223
13.10.U.S. Nuclear Research ............................... 223
13.11.Summary ............................................. 224
14. History of World Energy Program Policies .................. 225
14.1. USA National Energy Policies ........................ 225
14.1.1. Oil Import Quotas ........................... 226
14.1.2. The OPEC Oil Embargo ........................ 227
14.1.3. Project Independence ........................ 227
14.2. U.S. National Energy Act (1978) ..................... 229
14.3. Windfall Profits Tax Act and Energy Security Act
(1980) .............................................. 231
14.4. Other Energy Program Policies ....................... 233
14.4.1. The Reagan Energy Policy .................... 233
14.4.2. Other Pursuits .............................. 233
14.5. Synthetic Fuels Corporation ......................... 234
14.6. Stratetic Petroleum Reserve ......................... 235
14.7. Summary ............................................. 236
Part III
United States - Energy Forecasts and Modeling ................. 239
15. Energy Modeling Approach and Assumptions .................. 241
15.1. The USA Energy Modeling Approach .................... 241
15.1.1. Types of Models for Forecasting ............. 241
15.1.2. Economic Growth Rate Effects ................ 243
15.1.3. Labor Force Effects ......................... 243
15.1.4 Manufacturing Growth Effects ................ 243
15.2. Energy Intensive Industries ......................... 244
15.2.1 Major Industry Effects ...................... 244
15.3. Key Assumptions in Forecast Modeling ................ 244
15.3.1. Uncertainty in Modeling ..................... 244
15.3.2. Variability in Forecasting .................. 244
15.3.3. Variability in Expected Economic Growth ..... 244
15.4. World Oil Prices .................................... 245
15.4.1. OPEC and Eurasian Interactions .............. 245
15.4.2. OPEC Production Levels Effects .............. 245
15.4.3. OPEC Oil Production Factor .................. 245
15.4.4. OPEC Capacity Expansion Factor .............. 246
15.4.5. Non-OPEC Production Effects ................. 246
15.4.6. Economic Growth Assumptions ................. 246
15.4.7. Other Assumptions and Factors ............... 247
15.5. Cases ............................................... 248
15.5.1. Integrated Forecasts ........................ 248
15.5.2. Available Data Adjustments .................. 248
15.5.3. Carbon Emissions Coefficient Effects ........ 248
15.6. Other Types of Forecasts ............................ 249
15.6.1. Mid-Term Modeling Assumptions ............... 249
15.6.2. Short-Term Modeling Assumptions ............. 249
15.6.3. Modeling Differences ........................ 249
15.7. Summary ............................................. 250
16. U.S. Energy Forecasts and Modeling ........................ 251
16.1. U.S. Forecasts Models................................ 251
16.1.1. Forecasts Basis ............................. 251
16.1.2. Outlooks and Issues Reviewed in 1995
Models ...................................... 251
16.2. Energy Prices to 2010 and 2020 ...................... 252
16.2.1. Primary Fuels ............................... 252
16.2.2. Technological and Productivity Effects ...... 252
16.3. World Fuel Prices and Assessment Effects ............ 253
16.3.1. World Oil ................................... 253
16.3.2. Natural Gas ................................. 253
16.3.3. Coal ........................................ 254
16.3.4. Electricity ................................. 254
16.3.5. USA Crude Oil ............................... 254
16.3.6. Growth in Natural Gas ....................... 254
16.3.7. Renewable Energy ............................ 254
16.3.8. Nuclear Power ............................... 255
16.4. Consumption of Fuels ................................ 255
16.4.1. Oil and Gas ................................. 255
16.4.2. Natural Gas ................................. 255
16.4.3. Coal ........................................ 255
16.4.4. Nuclear Power ............................... 255
16.4.5. Electricity Fuel Consumption ................ 256
16.5. Renewable Energy .................................... 256
16.6. Energy Intensity and Use ............................ 257
16.6.1. Declines .................................... 257
16.6.2. Energy Per Dollar of GDP .................... 257
16.6.3. Energy Regulations .......................... 257
16.7. Carbon Emissions .................................... 257
16.7.1. Carbon Factors and Methodology .............. 257
16.7.2. Carbon Emission Coefficients ................ 258
16.7.3. Climate Change Action Plan Effects .......... 258
16.8. Summary ............................................. 258
17. USA Energy Demand and World Markets ....................... 259
17.1. Energy Demand by End Use ............................ 259
17.1.1. Primary Energy Consumption .................. 259
17.1.2. Transportation Sector ....................... 259
17.1.3. Residential and Industrial Sectors .......... 259
17.2. Growth in End Use by Fuel ........................... 260
17.3. Energy Consumption .................................. 260
17.3.1. Household Energy Expenditure ................ 261
17.3.2. Fossil Fuel Consumption ..................... 261
17.3.3. Energy End Uses ............................. 261
17.3.4. Carbon Emissions By Sector .................. 261
17.4. Primary and End-Use Energy Consumption .............. 262
17.4.1. Choices of End-Use Customers ................ 262
17.4.2. Fossil Fuel Substitutions ................... 262
17.4.3. Consumption Differences ..................... 262
17.4.4. Residential and Commercial Sectors, 2010 .... 263
17.4.5. Carbon Emissions ............................ 263
17.5. Alternative Energy Efficiency Cases ................. 263
17.6. Climate Change Action Program ....................... 264
17.7. Residential Demand .................................. 265
17.8. Commercial Demand ................................... 267
17.9. Industrial Fuel Shares .............................. 269
17.10.Energy Intensive Manufacturing ...................... 270
17.11.Industrial Demand ................................... 270
17.12.Transportation Demand ............................... 271
17.13.Energy Demand by End Use ............................ 274
17.14.Energy Demand-Challenges for the Future ............. 276
17.15.Comparative Forecasts ............................... 276
17.16.Summary ............................................. 278
18. USA Electricity Demand and Markets ........................ 279
18.1. Utility and Non-Utility Generators .................. 279
18.2. Competition ......................................... 280
18.3. Electricity Demand .................................. 281
18.4. New Capacity Additions .............................. 282
18.5. New Technologies .................................... 282
18.6. Electricity Fuel Share Flexibility .................. 282
18.7. Options ............................................. 283
18.8. Dominant Fuel ....................................... 283
18.9. Gas-Fired Generation ................................ 284
18.10.Sulfur Dioxide Emissions ............................ 284
18.11.Licensing Period .................................... 285
18.12.Reactor Lifetime Assumptions ........................ 285
18.13.Electricity - Renewable Energy ...................... 286
18.14.Electricity Prices .................................. 289
18.15.Electricity - Challenges for the Future ............. 290
18.16.Electricity - Comparative Forecasts ................. 291
18.17.Summary ............................................. 293
19. USA Oil and Natural Gas Consumption Forecasts ............. 295
19.1. Natural Gas Consumption ............................. 295
19.2. Wellhead Prices ..................................... 295
19.3. Gas Prices .......................................... 296
19.4. Oil and Gas Production .............................. 296
19.5. Gas Reserve Additions ............................... 297
19.6. Oil and Gas Production Trends ....................... 297
19.7. Oil Production ...................................... 297
19.8. Conventional Oil and Gas Production ................. 298
19.9. Technology Gains .................................... 298
19.10.Natural Gas Markets ................................. 298
19.11.Gas Transmission and Distribution.................... 299
19.12.Natural Gas Policy Issues ........................... 299
19.13.USA Oil Markets ..................................... 302
19.14.International Oil Markets ........................... 304
19.15.Oil and Gas: Challenges for Future .................. 306
19.16.Oil and Gas: Comparative Forecasts .................. 307
19.17.Summary ............................................. 308
20. Coal Market Forecasts and Analysis ........................ 309
20.1. Coal Consumption .................................... 309
20.2. Coal Demand ......................................... 310
20.3. Electricity Generation .............................. 310
20.4. Coal Demand Trend ................................... 311
20.5. USA Coal Exports .................................... 311
20.6. Coal Reserves ....................................... 312
20.7. Electricity Coal Demand ............................. 312
20.8. Coal: Environmental Issues .......................... 313
20.9. Coal: Challenges for the Future ..................... 314
20.10.Coal: Comparative Forecasts ......................... 316
20.11.Summary ............................................. 317
Part IV
World Regional Energy Overview ................................ 319
21. Regional Overview - North America and Latin America ....... 321
21.1. Introduction ........................................ 321
21.2. Regional Position in World Mineral Economy .......... 323
21.3. Regional Production Trends .......................... 323
21.4. Trade Liberalization Developments ................... 326
21.5. Privatization and Investment Interests .............. 327
21.6. Summary ............................................. 328
22. The Middle East ........................................... 329
22.1. Regional Overview ................................... 329
22.2. Bahrain ............................................. 332
22.3. Cyprus .............................................. 334
22.4. Iran ................................................ 335
22.5. Iraq ................................................ 339
22.6. Israel .............................................. 341
22.7. Jordan .............................................. 342
22.8. Kuwait .............................................. 344
22.9. Lebanon ............................................. 348
22.10.Oman ................................................ 349
22.11.Qatar ............................................... 352
22.12.Sauda Arabia ........................................ 355
22.13.Syria ............................................... 362
22.14.Turkey .............................................. 364
22.15.United Arab Emirates ................................ 369
22.16.The Republic of Yemen ............................... 371
23. Antarctica and Canada ..................................... 375
23.1. Antarctica .......................................... 375
23.1.1. Introduction ................................ 375
23.1.2. International Policies and Programs ......... 376
23.1.3. Mineral Potential ........................... 377
23.1.4. Infrastructure .............................. 377
23.1.5. Outlook ..................................... 378
23.2. Canada .............................................. 378
23.2.1. Economy ..................................... 378
23.2.2. Environmental Concerns ...................... 379
23.2.3. Government Policies and Programs ............ 380
23.2.4. Environmental Regulations ................... 380
23.2.5. Production .................................. 381
23.2.6. Trade ....................................... 382
23.2.7. Structure of the Mineral Industry ........... 382
23.2.8. Commodity Review and Hydroelectric
Potential ................................... 383
23.2.9. Mineral Fuels ............................... 384
23.2.10.Other Non-Petroleum Reserves ................ 386
23.2.11.Infrastructure .............................. 387
23.2.12.Outlook ..................................... 388
23.2.13.Summary ..................................... 389
24. Latin America ............................................. 391
24.1. Argentina ........................................... 391
24.2. Belize .............................................. 401
24.3. Bolivia ............................................. 402
24.4. Brazil .............................................. 409
24.5. Chile ............................................... 417
24.6. Columbia ............................................ 426
24.7. Costa Rica .......................................... 429
24.8. Cuba ................................................ 431
24.9. Dominican Republic .................................. 433
24.10.Ecuador ............................................. 434
24.11.El Salvador ......................................... 440
24.12.French Guiana ....................................... 442
24.13.Guatemala ........................................... 442
24.14.Guyana .............................................. 444
24.15.Honduras ............................................ 445
24.16.Jamaica ............................................. 446
24.17.Mexico .............................................. 447
24.18.Nicaragua ........................................... 458
24.19.Other Islands of The Carribbean ..................... 459
24.20.Panama .............................................. 464
24.21.Paraguay ............................................ 466
24.22.Peru ................................................ 467
24.23.Suriname ............................................ 471
24.24.Trinidad and Tobago ................................. 472
24.25.Uruguay ............................................. 474
24.26.Venezuela ........................................... 476
25. Europe and Central Eurasia ................................ 481
25.1. Regional Overview ................................... 481
25.2. Albania and Armenia ................................. 492
25.3. Austria ............................................. 496
25.4. Azerbaijan .......................................... 497
25.5. Belarus ............................................. 498
25.6. Belgium and Luxembourg .............................. 501
25.7. Bosnia and Herzegovina .............................. 502
25.8. Bulgaria ............................................ 503
25.9. Croatia ............................................. 505
25.10.The Czech Republic .................................. 506
25.11.Denmark ............................................. 511
25.12.Greenland ........................................... 512
25.13.Estonia ............................................. 513
25.14.Finland ............................................. 516
25.15.France .............................................. 517
25.16.Georgia ............................................. 520
25.17.Germany ............................................. 521
25.18.Greece .............................................. 525
25.19.Hungary ............................................. 527
25.20.Iceland ............................................. 529
25.21.Ireland ............................................. 529
25.22.Italy ............................................... 530
25.23.Kazakhstan .......................................... 533
25.24.Kyrgyzstan .......................................... 537
25.25.Latvia .............................................. 539
25.26.Lithuania ........................................... 540
25.27.Macedonia ........................................... 541
25.28.Malta ............................................... 542
25.29.Moldova ............................................. 542
25.30.Netherlands ......................................... 543
25.31.Norway .............................................. 545
25.32.Poland .............................................. 547
25.33.Portugal ............................................ 550
25.34.Romania ............................................. 552
25.35.Russia .............................................. 555
25.36.Serbia and Montenegro ............................... 567
25.37.Slovakia ............................................ 570
25.38.Slovenia ............................................ 572
25.39.Spain ............................................... 573
25.40.Sweden .............................................. 577
25.41.Switzerland ......................................... 579
25.42.Tajikistan .......................................... 579
25.43.Turkmenistan ........................................ 581
25.44.Ukraine ............................................. 583
25.45.United Kingdom ...................................... 585
25.46.Uzbekistan .......................................... 590
26. Africa .................................................... 593
26.1. Regional Overview ................................... 593
26.2. Algeria ............................................. 601
26.3. Angola .............................................. 606
26.4. Botswana ............................................ 608
26.5. Cameroon ............................................ 611
26.6. The Central African Republic ........................ 613
26.7. Chad ................................................ 614
26.8. Congo (Brazzaville) ................................. 615
26.9. Cote d'Ivoire ....................................... 618
26.10.Egypt ............................................... 620
26.11.Gabon ............................................... 624
26.12.Ghana ............................................... 627
26.13.Guinea .............................................. 631
26.14.The Islands of Comores, Mauritius, Reunion,
and Seychelles ...................................... 633
26.15.Kenya ............................................... 635
26.16.Libya ............................................... 637
26.17.Madagascar .......................................... 640
26.18.Malawi .............................................. 643
26.19.Mali ................................................ 644
26.20.Mauritania .......................................... 645
26.21.Morocco and Western Sahara .......................... 646
26.22.Mozambique .......................................... 650
26.23.Namibia ............................................. 653
26.24.Nigeria ............................................. 659
26.25.Senegal ............................................. 664
26.26.The Gambia .......................................... 665
26.27.Guinea-Bissau ....................................... 666
26.28.Sierra Leone ........................................ 666
26.29.South Africa ........................................ 667
26.30.Tanzania ............................................ 675
26.31.Togo ................................................ 677
26.32.Tunisia ............................................. 678
26.33.Democratic Republic of the Congo
(Formerly Zaire) .................................... 680
26.34.Zambia .............................................. 684
26.35.Zimbabwe ............................................ 688
26.36.Burundi ............................................. 689
26.37.Equatorial Guinea ................................... 691
26.38.Lesotho ............................................. 691
26.39.Rwanda .............................................. 692
26.40.Sao Tome e Principe ................................. 694
26.41.Swaziland ........................................... 694
26.42.Djibouti ............................................ 696
26.43.Eritrea ............................................. 696
26.44.Ethiopia ............................................ 697
26.45.Somalia ............................................. 700
26.46.Sudan ............................................... 702
26.47.Uganda .............................................. 704
26.48.Benin ............................................... 705
26.49.Burkina Faso ........................................ 706
26.50.Cape Verde .......................................... 707
26.51.Liberia ............................................. 707
26.52.Niger ............................................... 707
27. Asia and Pacific .......................................... 709
27.1. Regional Overview and Australia ..................... 709
27.2. Afghanistan ......................................... 723
27.3. Bangladesh .......................................... 725
27.4. Bhutan .............................................. 726
27.5. Brunei .............................................. 727
27.6. Burma ............................................... 729
27.7. Cambodia ............................................ 731
27.8. China ............................................... 732
27.9. Fiji ................................................ 739
27.10.India ............................................... 740
27.11.Indonesia ........................................... 744
27.12.Japan ............................................... 749
27.13.North Korea ......................................... 756
27.14.The Republic of Korea ............................... 757
27.15.Laos ................................................ 760
27.16.Malaysia ............................................ 761
27.17.Mongolia ............................................ 764
27.18.Nepal ............................................... 765
27.19.New Caledonia ....................................... 766
27.20.New Zealand ......................................... 766
27.21.Pakistan ............................................ 768
27.22.Papua New Guinea .................................... 771
27.23.Philippines ......................................... 773
27.24.Sri Lanka ........................................... 775
27.25.Taiwan .............................................. 776
27.26.Thailand ............................................ 779
27.27.Vietnam ............................................. 782
27.28.Summary ............................................. 785
References .................................................... 787
Appendix I. Conversion Table of Energy Units .................. 801
Author Index .................................................. 803
Subject Index ................................................. 805
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