Crompton T.R. Analysis of seawater: a guide for the analytical and environmental chemist. - Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2006. - 510 p. - ISSN 3-540-26762-X  Место хранения:   049 | Институт водных и экологических проблем CO РАН | Барнаул | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

1. Sampling and Storage ........................................ 1 1.1. Sampling .............................................. 1 1.2. Sampling Devices ...................................... 3 1.2.1. Intercomparison of Seawater Sampling for Trace Metals .................................. 7 1.2.2. Intercomparison of Sampling Devices and Analytical Techniques Using Seawater from a CEPEX (Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment) Enclosure ........................ 12 1.3. Sample Preservation and Storage ...................... 17 1.3.1. Losses of Silver, Arsenic, Cadmium, Selenium, and Zinc from Seawater by Sorption on Various Container Surfaces [54] ................................ 19 1.3.2. Losses of Phthalic Acid Esters and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Seawater Samples During Storage ....................... 26 1.4. Sample Contamination During Analysis ................. 27 References ........................................... 34 2. Determination of Anions .................................... 39 2.1. Acetate .............................................. 39 2.1.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 39 2.2. Acrylate ............................................. 39 2.2.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 39 2.3. Alkalinity ........................................... 39 2.3.1. Titration Method ............................. 39 2.3.2. Spectrophotometric Methods ................... 40 2.4. Arsenate/Arsenite .................................... 41 2.4.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 41 2.5. Benzoate ............................................. 41 2.5.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 41 2.6. Butyrate ............................................. 41 2.6.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 41 2.7. Borate ............................................... 42 2.7.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 42 2.8. Bromate .............................................. 42 2.8.1. Spectrophotometric Titration and Differential Pulse Polarography .............. 42 2.9. Bromide .............................................. 45 2.9.1. Titration Method ............................. 45 2.9.2. X-ray Emission Spectrometry .................. 45 2.9.3. Segmented Flow Analysis ...................... 46 2.9.4. Solid State Membrane Electrodes .............. 46 2.9.5. X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy .............. 46 2.9.6. Isotachoelectrophoresis ...................... 46 2.10. Chloride ............................................. 47 2.10.1. Titration Method ............................. 47 2.10.2. Ion Selective Electrodes ..................... 47 2.10.3. Chronopotentiometry .......................... 48 2.10.4. Miscellaneous ................................ 48 2.11. Chromate and Dichromate .............................. 48 2.11.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ............... 48 2.11.2. Organic Forms of Chromium .................... 49 2.12. Fluoride ............................................. 53 2.12.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 53 2.12.2. Ion Selective Electrodes ..................... 53 2.12.3. Photoactivation Analysis ..................... 56 2.12.4. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ............... 56 2.13. Formate .............................................. 57 2.13.1. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ....................................... 57 2.14. Hypochlorite ......................................... 58 2.14.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 58 2.15. Iodate ............................................... 58 2.15.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 58 2.16. Iodide ............................................... 62 2.16.1. Titration Method ............................. 62 2.16.2. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 63 2.16.3. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry ............... 63 2.16.4. Ion Chromatograpy ............................ 64 2.16.5. Miscellaneous ................................ 64 2.17. Molybdate ............................................ 65 2.17.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ............... 65 2.18. Nitrate .............................................. 65 2.18.1. Spectrophotometric Methods ................... 65 2.18.2. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy ..................... 66 2.18.3. Chemiluminescence Method ..................... 68 2.18.4. Flow Injection Analysis ...................... 68 2.18.5. Continuous Flow Analysis ..................... 69 2.18.6. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry ............... 69 2.18.7. Ion Chromatography ........................... 69 2.18.8. Bacteriological Method ....................... 69 2.18.9. Miscellaneous ................................ 71 2.19. Nitrite .............................................. 71 2.19.1. Spectrophotometric Methods ................... 71 2.19.2. Flow Injection Analysis ...................... 72 2.19.3. Isotope Dilution Gas Chromatography .......... 72 2.19.4. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry ............... 72 2.20. Nitrate and Nitrite .................................. 73 2.20.1. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 73 2.20.2. Flow Injection Analysis ...................... 73 2.20.3. Continuous Flow Analysis ..................... 75 2.20.4. Reverse Phase Ion Interaction Liquid Chromatography ............................... 75 2.20.5. Miscellaneous ................................ 75 2.21. Perrhenate ........................................... 76 2.22. Phosphate ............................................ 76 2.22.1. Reverse Flow Injection Analysis .............. 76 2.22.2. Spectrophotometric Method .................... 77 2.22.3. Ion Chromatography ........................... 82 2.23. Propionate ........................................... 82 2.23.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 82 2.24. Pyruvate ............................................. 82 2.24.1. Ion Chromatography ........................... 82 2.25. Selenate/Selenite .................................... 82 2.25.1 Fluorometric Method ........................... 82 2.26. Silicate ............................................. 83 2.26.1. Spectrophotometric Methods ................... 83 2.26.2. Flow Injection Analysis ...................... 84 2.26.3. Ion Exclusion Chromatography ................. 84 2.27. Sulfide .............................................. 85 2.27.1. Gas Chromatography ........................... 85 2.27.2. Capillary Isotachoelectrophoresis ............ 85 2.28. Sulfate .............................................. 86 2.28.1. Titration Method ............................. 86 2.28.2. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ................................. 86 2.28.3. Polarography ................................. 87 2.28.4. Ion Chromatography ........................... 88 2.29. Valerate ............................................. 88 2.29.1 Ion Chromatography ............................ 88 2.30. Multianion Analysis .................................. 88 2.30.1. Spectrophotometric Methods, Phosphate, Arsenate, Arsenite, and Sulfide .............. 88 2.30.2. Electrostatic Ion Chromatography, Bromide, Nitrate, and Iodide .......................... 89 2.30.3. Miscellaneous ................................ 90 2.31. pH ................................................... 90 2.32. Suspended Solids ..................................... 91 2.33. Anion Preconcentration ............................... 92 References ........................................... 92 3. Anions in Estuary and Coastal Waters ....................... 99 3.1. Nitrate .............................................. 99 3.1.1. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy ..................... 99 3.2. Nitrate and Nitrite .................................. 99 3.2.1. Autoanalyser Method .......................... 99 3.3. Phosphate ........................................... 100 3.3.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 100 3.4. Selenate and Selenite ............................... 100 3.4.1. Spectrofluorometric Method .................. 100 3.4.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 101 3.5. Sulfate ............................................. 101 3.5.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 101 3.6. Multianion Analysis ................................. 102 3.6.1. Spectrophotometric Method, Sulfate, Phosphate, Nitrate, and Sulfide ............. 102 References .......................................... 102 4. Dissolved Gases ........................................... 103 4.1. Free Chlorine ....................................... 103 4.1.1. Amperometric Titration Procedures ............ 103 4.2. Ozone ............................................... 108 4.3. Nitric Oxide ........................................ 108 4.4. Hydrogen Sulfide .................................... 108 4.5. Carbon Dioxide ...................................... 108 References .......................................... 109 5. Cations in Seawater ....................................... 111 5.1. Introduction ........................................ 111 5.2. Actinium ............................................ 112 5.3. Aluminium ........................................... 112 5.3.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 112 5.3.2. Spectrofluorometric Methods.................. 113 5.3.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 114 5.3.4. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 114 5.3.5. Gas Chromatography .......................... 114 5.4. Ammonium ............................................ 115 5.4.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 115 5.4.2. Flow Injection Analysis .................... 118 5.4.3. Ion-Selective Electrodes .................... 118 5.4.4. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 118 5.5. Antimony ............................................ 119 5.5.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 119 5.5.2. Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 119 5.6. Arsenic ............................................. 120 5.6.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 120 5.6.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry............... 121 5.6.3. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 122 5.6.4. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 123 5.6.5. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 123 5.6.6. X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy ............. 124 5.7. Barium .............................................. 124 5.7.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 124 5.8. Beryllium ........................................... 125 5.8.1. Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 125 5.8.2. Miscellaneous ............................... 125 5.9. Bismuth ............................................. 126 5.9.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 126 5.10. Boron ............................................... 127 5.10.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 127 5.10.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 128 5.10.3. Coulometry .................................. 128 5.11. Cadmium ............................................. 129 5.11.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 129 5.11.2. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 134 5.12. Caesium ............................................. 135 5.12.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 135 5.13. Cerium .............................................. 136 5.14. Calcium ............................................. 136 5.14.1. Titration Methods ........................... 136 5.14.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 138 5.14.3. Flame Photometry ............................ 138 5.14.4. Calcium-Selective Electrodes ................ 138 5.14.5. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ................................ 139 5.15. Chromium ............................................ 139 5.15.1. Total Chromium .............................. 139 5.15.2. Chromium (III) .............................. 142 5.15.3. Chromium (III) and (VI) ..................... 143 5.15.4. Chromium (III) and Total Chromium. Gas Chromatography .............................. 145 5.15.5. Organic Forms of Chromium ................... 145 5.16. Cobalt .............................................. 148 5.16.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 148 5.16.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 149 5.16.3. Flow Injection Analysis ..................... 150 5.16.4. Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometry ............ 150 5.16.5. Spectrofluorometry .......................... 150 5.16.6. Chemical Luminescence Analysis .............. 150 5.16.7. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 151 5.16.8. Polarography ................................ 151 5.17. Copper .............................................. 152 5.17.1. Titration Procedures ........................ 153 5.17.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 154 5.17.3. Spectrophotometric Method and Spectrofluorometric Method .................. 155 5.17.4. Ion-Selective Electrodes .................... 155 5.17.5. Electroanalytical Methods ................... 155 5.17.6. Isotope Dilution Methods .................... 157 5.17.7. Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometry ........ 157 5.17.8. Miscellaneous Methods ....................... 157 5.17.9. Copper Speciation ........................... 157 5.18. Dysprosium .......................................... 163 5.19. Erbium .............................................. 163 5.20. Europium ............................................ 163 5.21. Gadolinium .......................................... 163 5.22. Gallium ............................................. 163 5.23. Germanium ........................................... 163 5.23.1. Hydride Generation Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ..................... 163 5.24. Gold ................................................ 164 5.24.1. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 164 5.24.2. Photometry .................................. 164 5.25. Holmium ............................................. 164 5.26. Indium .............................................. 164 5.26.1. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 164 5.27. Iridium ............................................. 165 5.28. Iron ................................................ 165 5.28.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 165 5.28.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 166 5.28.3. Chemiluminescence ........................... 166 5.28.4. Voltammetry ................................. 167 5.28.5. Radioisotope Dilution ....................... 167 5.29. Lanthanum ........................................... 167 5.30. Lead ................................................ 168 5.30.1. Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy ............ 168 5.30.2. Flow Injection Analysis ..................... 168 5.30.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 168 5.30.4. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 172 5.30.5. Mass Spectrometry ........................... 174 5.30.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 174 5.31. Lithium ............................................. 174 5.31.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 174 5.31.2. Gel Permeation Chromatography ............... 174 5.31.3. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 174 5.32. Lutetium ............................................ 175 5.33. Magnesium ........................................... 175 5.33.1. Gravimetric Method .......................... 175 5.33.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 175 5.34. Manganese ........................................... 175 5.34.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 176 5.34.2. Spectrofluorometric Method .................. 177 5.34.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 177 5.34.4. Polarography ................................ 180 5.34.5. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 180 5.35. Mercury ............................................. 180 5.35.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 180 5.35.2. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 184 5.35.3. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ................................ 184 5.35.4. Atomic Emission Spectrometry ................ 184 5.35.5. Colloid Flotation ........................... 184 5.35.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 186 5.36. Molybdenum .......................................... 186 5.36.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 186 5.36.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 187 5.36.3. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 188 5.36.4. Electrochemical Methods ..................... 188 5.36.5. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry ............. 189 5.36.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 189 5.37. Neodymium ........................................... 189 5.38. Neptunium ........................................... 190 5.39. Nickel .............................................. 190 5.39.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 190 5.39.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 190 5.39.3. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 191 5.39.4. Liquid Scintillation Counting ............... 192 5.40. Osmium .............................................. 192 5.40.1. Resonance Ionisation Mass Spectrometry ...... 192 5.41. Palladium ........................................... 192 5.42. Platinum ............................................ 192 5.42.1. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 192 5.43. Plutonium ........................................... 192 5.44. Polonium ............................................ 193 5.45. Potassium ........................................... 193 5.45.1. Titration ................................... 193 5.45.2. Polarography ................................ 193 5.45.3. Ion-Selective Electrodes .................... 194 5.46. Praseodymium ........................................ 194 5.47. Promethium .......................................... 194 5.48. Radium .............................................. 194 5.49. Rare Earths ......................................... 194 5.49.1. Cerium ...................................... 194 5.49.2. Praseodymium ................................ 195 5.49.3. Neodymium ................................... 195 5.49.4. Promethium .................................. 195 5.49.5. Samarium .................................... 195 5.49.6. Europium .................................... 196 5.49.7. Gadolinium .................................. 196 5.49.8. Terbium ..................................... 196 5.49.9. Dysprosium .................................. 196 5.49.10.Holmium ..................................... 196 5.49.11.Erbium ...................................... 196 5.49.12.Thulium ..................................... 196 5.49.13.Ytterbium ................................... 196 5.49.14.Lutetium .................................... 196 5.49.15.Analysis of Rare Earth Mixtures ............. 197 5.50. Rhenium ............................................. 199 5.50.1. Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 199 5.50.2. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 200 5.51. Rubidium ............................................ 200 5.51.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 200 5.51.2. Spectrometry ................................ 201 5.51.3. Mass Spectrometry ........................... 201 5.51.4. X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy ............. 201 5.52. Ruthenium ........................................... 201 5.53. Samarium ............................................ 201 5.54. Scandium ............................................ 201 5.55. Selenium ............................................ 201 5.55.1. Spectrophotometry ........................... 202 5.55.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 202 5.55.3. Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 202 5.55.4. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 202 5.55.5. Gas Chromatography .......................... 203 5.55.6. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 203 5.56. Silver .............................................. 203 5.56.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 203 5.56.2. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 204 5.57. Sodium .............................................. 204 5.57.1. Amperometry ................................. 204 5.57.2. Polarimetry ................................. 204 5.58. Strontium ........................................... 205 5.58.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 205 5.59. Technetium .......................................... 205 5.60. Tellurium ........................................... 205 5.60.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 205 5.61. Terbium ............................................. 206 5.62. Thallium ............................................ 206 5.63. Thorium ............................................. 206 5.63.1. Thermal Ion Mass Spectrometry ............... 206 5.63.2. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 206 5.64. Thulium ............................................. 207 5.65. Tin ................................................. 207 5.65.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 207 5.65.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 207 5.65.3. Gas Chromatography .......................... 207 5.65.4. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 209 5.65.5. Anodic Stripping Vbltammetry ................ 210 5.65.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 211 5.66. Titanium ............................................ 211 5.66.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 211 5.67. Tungsten ............................................ 211 5.68. Uranium ............................................. 211 5.68.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 211 5.68.2. Cathodic Stripping Vbltammetry .............. 211 5.68.3. Polarography ................................ 212 5.68.4. Miscellaneous ............................... 212 5.69. Vanadium ............................................ 213 5.69.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 213 5.69.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 213 5.69.3. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 214 5.69.4. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 214 5.69.5. Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 214 5.70. Ytterbium ........................................... 215 5.71. Yttrium ............................................. 215 5.72. Zinc ................................................ 215 5.72.1. Spectrofluorometric Method .................. 216 5.72.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 216 5.72.3. Flow Injection Analysis ..................... 217 5.72.4. Stripping Voltammetry ....................... 217 5.72.5. Miscellaneous ............................... 218 5.73. Zirconium ........................................... 218 5.74. Multication Analysis ................................ 218 5.74.1. Titration Procedures ....................... 218 5.74.2. Spectrophotometric Procedure ................ 219 5.74.3. Molecular Photoluminescence Spectrometry .... 219 5.74.4. Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ........ 220 5.74.5. Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 223 5.74.6. Zeeman Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 231 5.74.7. Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ................................ 233 5.74.8. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ....................... 240 5.74.9. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 244 5.74.10.Plasma Emission Spectrometry ................ 248 5.74.11.Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 248 5.74.12.Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 259 5.74.13.Chronopotentiometry ......................... 260 5.74.14.X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry ............. 261 5.74.15.Neutron Activation Analysis ................. 262 5.74.16.Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry .......... 268 5.74.17.High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 271 5.74.18.Metal Speciation ............................ 271 5.74.19.Metal Preconcentration ...................... 285 5.74.20.Miscellaneous ............................... 288 References .......................................... 288 6. Cations in Estuary, Bay, and Coastal Waters ............... 313 6.1. Ammonium ............................................ 313 6.2. Arsenic ............................................. 314 6.2.1. Hydride Generation Atomic Spectrometry ...... 314 6.3. Barium .............................................. 314 6.3.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry ............... 314 6.4. Cadmium ............................................. 315 6.4.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 315 6.5. Calcium and Magnesium ............................... 316 6.6. Copper .............................................. 316 6.6.1. Titration Procedure ......................... 316 6.6.2. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 316 6.7. Mercury ............................................. 317 6.7.1. Miscellaneous ............................... 317 6.8. Manganese ........................................... 318 6.8.1. Polarography ................................ 318 6.9. Selenium ............................................ 318 6.9.1. Hydride Generation Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 318 6.10. Tin ................................................. 318 6.10.1. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 318 6.11. Multication Analysis ................................ 319 6.11.1. Heavy Metals, Isotope Dilution, Spark Source Mass Spectrometry, and Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry ................................ 319 6.11.2. Anodic Stripping Voltammetry ................ 322 6.11.3. Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry .............. 322 6.11.4. Emission Spectrometry ....................... 323 6.11.5. Hydride Generation Atomic Spectrometry ...... 323 6.11.6. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ................................ 323 6.11.7. Preconcentration Techniques ................. 324 6.11.8. Speciation .................................. 325 References .......................................... 325 7. Radioactive Elements ...................................... 329 7.1. Naturally Occurring Cations ......................... 329 7.1.1. Actinium .................................... 329 7.1.2. Polonium and Lead ........................... 329 7.1.3. Radium ...................................... 331 7.1.3.1. Radium, Barium, and Radon ......... 331 7.1.3.2. Radium, Thorium, and Lead ......... 332 7.1.4. Technetium .................................. 333 7.1.5. Thorium ..................................... 333 7.1.6. Bromide ..................................... 335 7.1.7. Phosphate ................................... 335 7.2. Fallout Products and Nuclear Plant Emissions ........ 336 7.2.1. Americium and Plutonium ..................... 336 7.2.2. 137Caesium .................................. 336 7.2.3. 60Cobalt .................................... 338 7.2.4. 55Iron ...................................... 338 7.2.5. 54Manganese ................................. 338 7.2.6. 237Neptunium ................................ 339 7.2.7. Plutonium ................................... 339 7.2.8. 106Ruthenium and Osmium ..................... 341 7.2.9. 90Strontium ................................. 341 7.2.10. Uranium ..................................... 342 7.2.11. Miscellaneous ............................... 344 References .......................................... 344 8. Sample Preparation Prior to Analysis for Organics ......... 349 8.1. Soluble Components of Seawater ...................... 350 8.1.1. Reverse Osmosis ............................. 350 8.1.2. Freeze Drying ............................... 350 8.1.3. Freezing-Out Methods ........................ 351 8.1.4. Froth Flotation ............................. 351 8.1.5. Solvent Extraction .......................... 351 8.1.6. Coprecipitation Techniques .................. 353 8.1.7. Adsorption Techniques ....................... 354 8.2. Volatile Compounds of Seawater ...................... 355 8.2.1. Gas Stripping ............................... 355 8.2.2. Headspace Analysis .......................... 357 8.2.3. Fractionation ............................... 358 8.3. Chemical Pretreatment of Organics ................... 361 References .......................................... 362 9. Organic Compounds ......................................... 365 9.1. Aliphatic Hydrocarbons .............................. 366 9.1.1. Spectrofluorometry .......................... 366 9.1.2. Dynamic Headspace Analysis .................. 366 9.1.3. Raman Spectroscopy .......................... 368 9.1.4. Flow Calorimetry ............................ 368 9.2. Aromatic Hydrocarbons ............................... 368 9.2.1. Spectrofluorometry .......................... 368 9.2.2. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ...................................... 369 9.3. Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons ........................... 369 9.4. Oil Spills .......................................... 370 9.4.1. Spectrofluorometry .......................... 370 9.4.2. Infrared Spectroscopy ....................... 371 9.4.3. Gas Chromatography .......................... 373 9.4.4. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC- MS) ......................................... 375 9.4.5. Miscellaneous ............................... 377 9.5. Carboxylic Acids and Hydroxy Acids .................. 377 9.5.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 377 9.5.2. Gas Chromatography .......................... 377 9.5.3. Liquid Chromatography ....................... 378 9.5.4. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) ........ 379 9.5.5. Diffusion Method ............................ 379 9.6. Ketones and Aldehydes ............................... 380 9.6.1. Spectrophotometric Method, Fluorometric and Chemiluminescence Methods ............... 380 9.6.2. Potential Sweep Voltammetry ................. 380 9.6.3. Gas Chromatography .......................... 381 9.7. Phenols ............................................. 381 9.7.1. Spectrophotometric Methods .................. 381 9.7.2. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC- MS) ......................................... 382 9.8. Phthalate Esters .................................... 382 9.9. Carbohydrates ....................................... 382 9.9.1. Spectrophotometry ........................... 382 9.9.2. Enzymic Methods ............................. 384 9.9.3. Liquid Chromatography ....................... 384 9.9.4. Gas Chromatography .......................... 385 9.9.5. Miscellaneous ............................... 385 9.10. Cationic Surfactants ................................ 386 9.10.1. Titration Method ............................ 386 9.10.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) ........ 386 9.10.3. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC- MS) ......................................... 386 9.11. Anionic Surfactants ................................. 386 9.11.1. Titration ................................... 386 9.11.2. Spectrophotometry ........................... 387 9.11.3. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) ........ 387 9.11.4. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ...................................... 388 9.12. Non-Ionic Surfactants ............................... 388 9.12.1. Spectrophotometry ........................... 388 9.12.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) ........ 389 9.12.3. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) ..................................... 389 9.13. Aliphatic Chloro Compounds .......................... 390 9.13.1. Gas Chromatography .......................... 390 9.13.2. Purge and Trap Analysis ..................... 390 9.13.3. Head Space Analysis ......................... 391 9.13.4. Miscellaneous ............................... 392 9.14. Volatile Organic Compounds .......................... 392 9.14.1. Head Space Analysis ......................... 392 9.14.2. Stripping Methods ........................... 393 9.14.3. Mass Spectrometry ........................... 393 9.15. Chlorinated Dioxins ................................. 393 9.16. Nitrogen Compounds .................................. 393 9.16.1. Spectrofluorometry .......................... 394 9.16.2. Proteins and Peptides ....................... 397 9.16.3. Nucleic Acids ............................... 397 9.16.4. Enzyme Activity ............................. 398 9.16.5. Aliphatic and Aromatic Amines ............... 398 9.16.6. Nitro-Compounds ............................. 399 9.16.7. Azarenes .................................... 400 9.16.8. Urea ....................................... 400 9.16.9. Hydroxylamine .............................. 400 9.16.10.Acrylamide .................................. 400 9.16.11.Ethylene Diamine Tetracetic Acid and Nitriloacetic Acid .......................... 401 9.17. Sulfur Compounds .................................... 401 9.17.1. Alkyl Sulfides and Disulfides ............... 401 9.17.2. Thiols ...................................... 402 9.17.3. Dimethyl Sulfoxide .......................... 402 9.17.4. Thiabend Azole .............................. 402 9.17.5. Cysteine and Cystine ........................ 403 9.17.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 403 9.18. Chlorinated Insecticides ........................... 403 9.18.1. Gas Chromatography .......................... 403 9.18.2. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 404 9.19. Polychlorobiphenyls ................................. 404 9.19.1. Gas Spectrofluorometry ...................... 405 9.19.2. Gas Chromatography .......................... 405 9.19.3. Column Chromatography ....................... 408 9.19.4. Miscellaneous ............................... 409 9.20. Organophosphorus Compounds .......................... 409 9.20.1. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 409 9.20.2. Gas Chromatography .......................... 410 9.20.3. Enzymatic Methods ........................... 410 9.20.4. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry ............. 411 9.21. Azine Herbicides .................................... 411 9.21.1. Gas Chromatography .......................... 411 9.21.2. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC- MS) ......................................... 411 9.21.3. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) ...................................... 411 9.22. Diuron, Irgalol, Chlorothalonil ..................... 412 9.23. Lipids .............................................. 412 9.24. Sterols ............................................. 413 9.25. Chelators ........................................... 415 9.26. Humic Materials and Plant Pigments .................. 416 9.27. Vitamins ............................................ 423 9.28. Cobalamin ........................................... 423 9.29. Pectenotoxins ....................................... 423 9.30. Flavins ............................................. 426 9.31. Microcystine ........................................ 426 9.32. Preconcentration of Organics ........................ 426 References .......................................... 426 10. Organometallic Compounds .................................. 443 10.1. Organoarsenic Compounds ............................. 443 10.1.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 444 10.1.2. Spectrophotometric Method ................... 445 10.1.3. Miscellaneous Methods ....................... 446 10.2. Organocadmium Compounds ............................. 446 10.2.1 Anodic Scanning Voltammetry .................. 446 10.3. Organocopper Compounds .............................. 446 10.4. Organolead Compounds ................................ 447 10.5. Organomercury Compounds ............................. 447 10.5.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 450 10.5.2. Gas Chromatography .......................... 452 10.5.3. Miscellaneous ............................... 454 10.6. Organothallium Compounds ............................ 454 10.7. Organotin Compounds ................................. 455 10.7.1. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .............. 455 10.7.2. Gas Chromatography .......................... 456 10.7.3. Hydride Generation Gas Chromatography- Microwave Induced Atomic Emission Spectrometry (HGGC-MIAES) ................... 459 10.7.4. Thermal Desorption-Gas Chromatography- Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (TDGC-ICPMS) ................... 460 10.7.5. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ...... 461 10.7.6. Miscellaneous ............................... 461 References .......................................... 462 11. Elemental Analysis ........................................ 467 11.1. Boron ............................................... 467 11.2. Total Iodine ........................................ 467 11.3. Organic Nitrogen .................................... 468 11.4. Organic Phosphorus .................................. 470 11.5. Silicon ............................................. 471 11.6. Total Sulfur ........................................ 471 11.7. Carbon Functions .................................... 472 11.7.1. Dissolved Organic Carbon .................... 472 11.7.2. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon .................. 487 11.7.3. Particulate Organic Carbon .................. 489 11.7.4. Dissolved Organic Carbon .................... 490 11.7.5. Chemical Oxygen Demand ...................... 493 11.7.6. Biochemical Demand .......................... 496 11.8. Oxygen Isotopic Ratios .............................. 498 References ................................................ 498 Subject Index ................................................. 505