Chapter 0. Spatial Learner's Permit ............................. 1
Spatial Terminology ............................................. 2
Applying Spatial Terms .......................................... 5
Spatial Cognition ............................................... 8
Spatial Quantities ............................................. 10
Spherical Earth ................................................ 11
Concluding Remarks ............................................. 13
Terms .......................................................... 14
Practice Exercises ............................................. 14
References ..................................................... 16
UNIT.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................... 17
Chapter 1. Introduction to Digital Geography ................... 19
Learning Objectives ............................................ 19
Geographic Information Systems Denned .......................... 19
A Brief History of Geographic Information Systems .............. 23
GIS as a Growth Industry ....................................... 25
Sample Application Areas of GIS................................. 26
The Study of GIS ............................................... 29
Terms .......................................................... 31
Review Questions ............................................... 31
References ..................................................... 31
UNIT 2. DIGITAL GEOGRAPHIC DATA AND MAPS ...................... 33
Chapter 2. Basic Geographic Concepts .......................... 35
Learning Objectives ............................................ 36
Developing Spatial Awareness ................................... 37
Spatial Measurement Levels ..................................... 40
Spatial Location and Reference ................................. 42
Spatial Patterns ............................................... 45
Geographic Data Collection ..................................... 47
Populations and Sampling Schemes ............................... 52
Making Inferences from Samples ................................. 54
Terms .......................................................... 56
Review Questions ............................................... 56
References ..................................................... 57
Chapter 3. Map Basics ......................................... 58
Learning Objectives ............................................ 59
Abstract Nature of Maps ........................................ 59
A Paradigm Shift in Cartography ................................ 60
Map Scale ...................................................... 61
More Map Characteristics ....................................... 63
Map Projections ................................................ 63
Grid Systems for Mapping ....................................... 66
Map Symbolism .................................................. 73
Map Abstraction and Cartographic Databases 77 Terms ........... 78
Review Questions ............................................... 78
References ..................................................... 79
Chapter 4. GIS Computer Structure Basics ...................... 81
Learning Objectives ............................................ 82
A Quick Review of the Map as an Abstraction of Space ........... 82
Some Basic Computer File Structures ............................ 84
Simple Lists ................................................... 84
Ordered Sequential Files ....................................... 85
Indexed Files 86 Database Management Structures ................ 88
Hierarchical Data Structures ................................... 88
Network Systems ................................................ 90
Relational Database Management Systems ......................... 92
Some Basic Computer Terminology ................................ 95
Terms .......................................................... 96
Review Questions ............................................... 97
References ..................................................... 97
Chapter 5. GIS Data Models .................................... 99
Learning Objectives ........................................... 100
Graphic Representation of Entities and Attributes ............. 100
GIS System Data Models ........................................ 104
Raster Models ................................................. 105
Raster Surface Models ......................................... 106
Compact Storing of Raster Data ................................ 108
Commercial Raster Compaction Products ......................... 110
Vector Models ................................................. 111
An Object-Oriented Data Model ................................. 117
Compacting Vector Data Models ................................. 117
A Vector Model to Represent Surfaces .......................... 118
Systems Models ................................................ 119
Terms ......................................................... 123
Review Questions .............................................. 123
References .................................................... 124
UNIT 3. INPUT, STORAGE, AND EDITING .......................... 127
Chapter 6. GIS Input ......................................... 129
Learning Objectives ........................................... 129
Primary Data .................................................. 130
Input Devices ................................................. 131
Reference Frameworks and Transformations ...................... 134
Map Preparation and the Digitizing Process .................... 137
What to Input ................................................. 140
How Much to Input ............................................. 141
Methods of Vector Input ....................................... 142
Methods of Raster Input ....................................... 143
Remote Sensing Data Input ..................................... 146
GPS Data Input ................................................ 149
Secondary Data ................................................ 150
Metadata and Metadata Standards ............................... 151
Terms ......................................................... 154
Review Questions .............................................. 154
References .................................................... 155
Chapter 7. Data Storage and Editing .......................... 157
Learning Objectives ........................................... 158
GIS Database Storage .......................................... 158
Basic Error Types ............................................. 160
Consequences of Errors ........................................ 161
Error Detection and Editing ................................... 162
Entity Errors: Vector ......................................... 162
Attribute Errors: Raster and Vector ........................... 168
Dealing with Projection Changes ............................... 171
Joining Adjacent Maps: Edge Matching .......................... 172
Conflation .................................................... 173
Templating .................................................... 174
Terms ......................................................... 175
Review Questions .............................................. 175
References .................................................... 176
UNIT 4. SPATIAL ANALYSIS ...................................... 177
Chapter 8. Query and Description ............................. 179
Learning Objectives ........................................... 180
Model Flowcharting ............................................ 180
GIS Data Query ................................................ 181
Locating and Identifying Spatial Objects ...................... 184
Denning Spatial Characteristics ............................... 185
Point Attributes .............................................. 186
Line Attributes ............................................... 187
Area Attributes 189 Working with Higher-Level Objects ........ 192
Higher-Level Point Objects .................................... 192
Higher-Level Line Objects ..................................... 195
Higher-Level Area Objects ..................................... 198
Terms ......................................................... 199
Review Questions .............................................. 200
References .................................................... 200
Chapter 9. Measurement ....................................... 202
Learning Objectives ........................................... 202
Measuring Length .............................................. 203
Measuring Polygons ............................................ 205
Measuring Polygon Lengths ..................................... 205
Measuring Perimeters of Polygons .............................. 206
Calculating Areas of Polygonal Features ....................... 207
Measuring Shape ............................................... 208
Measuring Sinuosity ........................................... 209
Measuring Polygon Shape ....................................... 209
Measuring Distance ............................................ 213
Euclidean Distance ............................................ 213
Functional Distance ........................................... 215
Terms ......................................................... 223
Review Questions .............................................. 224
References .................................................... 225
Chapter 10. Classification .................................... 227
Learning Objectives ........................................... 228
Classification Principles ..................................... 228
Elements of Reclassification .................................. 230
Neighborhood Functions ........................................ 231
Roving Windows: Filters ....................................... 232
Static Neighborhood Functions ................................. 235
Buffers ....................................................... 239
Terms ......................................................... 244
Review Questions .............................................. 244
References .................................................... 245
Chapter 11. Statistical Surfaces .............................. 247
Learning Objectives ........................................... 248
What are Surfaces? ............................................ 249
Surface Mapping ............................................... 250
Nontopographical Surfaces ..................................... 252
Sampling the Statistical Surface .............................. 253
The DEM 254 Interpolation ..................................... 255
Linear Interpolation .......................................... 256
Methods of Nonlinear Interpolation ............................ 257
Problems of Interpolation ..................................... 262
Terms ......................................................... 266
Review Questions .............................................. 267
References .................................................... 268
Chapter 12. Terrain Analysis .................................. 269
Learning Objectives ........................................... 270
Terrain Reclassification ...................................... 270
Elevation Zones ............................................... 270
Slope Analysis ................................................ 272
Aspect Analysis ............................................... 273
Shape or Form ................................................. 275
Viewshed Analysis ............................................. 279
Soundshed Analysis ............................................ 282
Cut and Fill .................................................. 283
Terms ......................................................... 284
Review Questions .............................................. 284
References .................................................... 286
Chapter 13. Spatial Arrangement ............................... 288
Learning Objectives ........................................... 289
Point, Area, and Line Arrangements ............................ 290
Point Patterns ................................................ 290
Nearest Neighbor Analysis ..................................... 291
Thiessen Polygons ............................................. 293
Area Patterns ................................................. 295
Distance and Adjacency ........................................ 296
Other Polygonal Arrangement Measures .......................... 297
Linear Patterns ............................................... 297
Line Densities ................................................ 298
Nearest Neighbors and Line Intercepts ......................... 298
Direction and Circular Statistics ............................. 300
Connectivity of Linear Objects ................................ 303
Gravity Model ................................................. 306
Routing and Allocation ........................................ 307
Terms ......................................................... 309
Review Questions .............................................. 310
References .................................................... 311
Chapter 14. Map Overlay ....................................... 313
Learning Objectives ........................................... 313
The Cartographic Overlay ...................................... 314
Point-In-Polygon and Line-In-Polygon Overlay .................. 316
Polygon Overlays .............................................. 318
Why Perform an Overlay? ....................................... 318
Types of Map Overlay .......................................... 319
Types of Vector Overlays ...................................... 323
Graphical Overlay ............................................. 324
Topological Vector Overlay .................................... 326
A Note about Error in Overlay ................................. 326
Dasymetric Mapping ............................................ 328
Terms ......................................................... 330
Review Questions .............................................. 331
References .................................................... 331
Chapter 15. Cartographic Modeling ............................. 333
Learning Objectives ........................................... 334
Model Components .............................................. 334
The Cartographic Model ........................................ 335
Types of Cartographic Models .................................. 337
Inductive and Deductive Modeling .............................. 339
Factor Selection .............................................. 339
Model Flowcharting ............................................ 340
Working Through the Model ..................................... 342
Conflict Resolution ........................................... 347
Sample Cartographic Models .................................... 348
Model Implementation .......................................... 351
Model Verification ............................................ 352
Terms ......................................................... 356
Review Questions .............................................. 356
References .................................................... 357
UNIT 5. GIS OUTPUT AND DESIGN ................................. 359
Chapter 16. Cartography and Visualization ..................... 361
Learning Objectives ........................................... 361
Output: The Display of Analysis ............................... 362
Cartographic Output ........................................... 363
Thematic Maps and Cartograms .................................. 364
Multivariate Display .......................................... 369
Dynamic and Interactive Display ............................... 371
Web Mapping and Visualization ................................. 372
Virtual and Immersion Environments ............................ 374
Mapping the Temporal Dimension ................................ 374
Noncartographic Output ........................................ 375
Tables and Charts ............................................. 376
Design Considerations ......................................... 377
Terms ......................................................... 380
Review Questions .............................................. 380
References .................................................... 381
Chapter 17. GIS Design ........................................ 383
Learning Objectives ........................................... 384
Application Design ............................................ 385
Some General Systems Characteristics .......................... 387
Project Definition ............................................ 388
Analytical Model Design ....................................... 389
Components and Procedures ..................................... 389
GIS Tools for Solving Problems ................................ 390
Selecting the Software ........................................ 390
Scientific Models and GIS ..................................... 390
Database Design ............................................... 391
Modeling Tools ................................................ 391
Establishing the Effective Spatial Domain of the Model ........ 392
Study Area .................................................... 393
Scale, Resolution, and Level of Detail ........................ 393
Classification ................................................ 394
Coordinate System and Projection .............................. 394
Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Models ...................... 395
Institutional/System Design 395 GIS Information Products ...... 396
How Information Products Drive the GIS ........................ 396
Organizing the Local Views .................................... 397
Avoiding Design Creep ......................................... 398
View Integration .............................................. 399
System Implementation ......................................... 399
The Institutional Setting for GIS Operations .................. 400
The System and the Outside World .............................. 400
Internal Players .............................................. 401
External Players .............................................. 402
Terms ......................................................... 403
Review Questions .............................................. 403
References .................................................... 404
Appendix A. Software and Data Sources ......................... 405
Appendix В. Using the World Wide Web to Find Data and GIS
Examples .......................................... 411
Glossary ...................................................... 413
Index ......................................................... 435
Photo Credits ................................................. 443
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