Preface to the second edition .................................. xi
Acknowledgements ............................................. xiii
List of Figures ................................................ xv
List of Tables and Panels ................................... xxiii
1. Introduction ............................................... 01
1.1. Coastal geomorphology ................................ 01
1.2. Terminology .......................................... 02
1.3. Ancient coastlines ................................... 03
1.4. Coastline morphology ................................. 05
1.5. Coastline length ..................................... 07
1.6. Coastal evolution .................................... 08
1.7. Changing coastlines .................................. 09
1.8. Summary .............................................. 11
2. Coastal processes .......................................... 13
2.1. Introduction ......................................... 13
2.2. Waves ................................................ 13
2.3. Tides ................................................ 25
2.4. Storm surges ......................................... 31
2.5. Tsunamis ............................................. 32
2.6. Currents ............................................. 34
2.7. Nearshore water circulation .......................... 35
2.8. Wind action .......................................... 36
2.9. Other processes ...................................... 36
2.10. Modelling coastal processes .......................... 36
2.11. Summary .............................................. 37
3. Land and sea level changes ................................. 39
3.1. Introduction ......................................... 39
3.2. Mean sea level ....................................... 39
3.3. Causes of sea level change ........................... 40
3.4. Measuring changes of level ........................... 45
3.5. Correlation and dating of former coastlines .......... 46
3.6. Emerged coastlines ................................... 46
3.7. Submerged coastlines ................................. 51
3.8. Sea level variations ................................. 53
3.9. Late Quaternary sea level changes .................... 53
3.10. Modern sea level changes ............................. 58
3.11. Recent changes of land and sea level ................. 62
3.12. Future sea level changes ............................. 65
3.13. Summary .............................................. 66
4. Cliffs ..................................................... 67
4.1. Introduction ......................................... 67
4.2. Cliff evolution ...................................... 69
4.3. Cliff morphology ..................................... 74
4.4. Cliff weathering in cold climates .................... 85
4.5. Cliffs and bluffs on humid tropical coasts ........... 86
4.6. Cliff dissection ..................................... 87
4.7. Outlines in plan of cliffed coasts ................... 95
4.8. Coastal landslides ................................... 98
4.9. Rates of cliff recession ............................ 102
4.10. Summary ............................................. 106
5. Shore platforms ........................................... 107
5.1. Shore processes ..................................... 107
5.2. Shore platforms ..................................... 113
5.3. Plunging cliffs ..................................... 130
5.4. Summary ............................................. 132
6. Beaches ................................................... 133
6.1. Introduction ........................................ 133
6.2. Beach sediments ..................................... 134
6.3. Evolution of beaches ................................ 137
6.4. Provenance of beach sediments ....................... 138
6.5. Weathering of beach material ........................ 160
6.6. Beach rock .......................................... 161
6.7. Nearshore processes ................................. 162
6.8. Beach morphology .................................... 162
6.9. Beach outlines in plan .............................. 164
6.10. Beach outlines in profile ........................... 171
6.11. Beach morphodynamics and beach states ............... 179
6.12. Use of models ....................................... 181
6.13. Beach compartments .................................. 182
6.14. Beach budgets ....................................... 183
6.15. Tracing beach sediment flow ......................... 184
6.16. Lateral grading ..................................... 187
6.17. Prograding beaches .................................. 190
6.18. Beach ridges ........................................ 193
6.19. Cheniers ............................................ 197
6.20. Beach lobes ......................................... 198
6.21. Summary ............................................. 200
7. Beach erosion ............................................. 201
7.1. Introduction ........................................ 201
7.2. The multiple causes of beach erosion ................ 217
7.3. Effects of artificial structures on beaches ......... 218
7.4. Beach nourishment ................................... 219
7.5. Summary ............................................. 221
8. Spits, barriers and bars .................................. 223
8.1. Introduction ........................................ 223
8.2. Spits ............................................... 223
8.3. Tombolos ............................................ 229
8.4. Cuspate and lobate spits ............................ 230
8.5. Cuspate and lobate forelands ........................ 234
8.6. Coastal barriers and barrier islands ................ 235
8.7. Intertidal sandflats ................................ 242
8.8. Bars and troughs .................................... 242
8.9. Sand shoals ......................................... 245
8.10. Ripples ............................................. 245
8.11. Sandstone reefs ..................................... 246
8.12. Summary ............................................. 246
9. Coastal dunes ............................................. 247
9.1. Introduction ........................................ 247
9.2. Foredunes ........................................... 250
9.3. Backshore cliffing of dunes ......................... 252
9.4. Parallel dunes ...................................... 253
9.5. Blow-outs and parabolic dunes ....................... 255
9.6. Transgressive dunes ................................. 258
9.7. Cliff-top dunes ..................................... 261
9.8. Dunes on shingle .................................... 261
9.9. Rates of dune movement .............................. 262
9.10. Dune calcarenite .................................... 263
9.11. Machair ............................................. 265
9.12. Coastal dunes in the humid tropics .................. 266
9.13. Old and new dunes ................................... 267
9.14. Dune sandrock ....................................... 268
9.15. Dune lakes .......................................... 268
9.16. Summary ............................................. 268
10. Intertidal wetlands ....................................... 271
10.1. Introduction ........................................ 271
10.2. Intertidal morphology ............................... 271
10.3. Sources of intertidal sediments ..................... 274
10.4. Mudflats ............................................ 274
10.5. Intertidal vegetation ............................... 276
10.6. Sea-grass beds ...................................... 276
10.7. Salt marshes ........................................ 277
10.8. Mangroves ........................................... 286
10.9. Freshwater swamps ................................... 293
10.10.Summary ............................................. 294
11. Estuaries and lagoons ..................................... 295
11.1. Introduction ........................................ 295
11.2. Rias ................................................ 295
11.3. Fiords .............................................. 296
11.4. Fiards .............................................. 298
11.5. Calanques ........................................... 298
11.6. Sharms and sebkhas .................................. 298
11.7. Estuaries ........................................... 299
11.8. Coastal lagoons ..................................... 311
11.9. Summary ............................................. 329
12. Deltas .................................................... 331
12.1. Introduction ........................................ 331
12.2. Delta components .................................... 331
12.3. Deltaic processes ................................... 332
12.4. The Mississippi delta ............................... 334
12.5. Delta outlines ...................................... 337
12.6. Delta evolution ..................................... 342
12.7. Delta shores ........................................ 346
12.8. Summary ............................................. 347
13. Coral and algal reefs ..................................... 349
13.1. Introduction ........................................ 349
13.2. Coral reefs ......................................... 349
13.3. Origin of coral reefs ............................... 350
13.4. Rates of growth ..................................... 351
13.5. Fringing reefs ...................................... 353
13.6. Barrier reefs ....................................... 354
13.7. Atolls .............................................. 357
13.8. Emerged coral reefs ................................. 359
13.9. Islands on coral reef platforms ..................... 360
13.10.Algal and other biogenic reefs ...................... 363
13.11.Summary ............................................. 364
14. Future coasts ............................................. 365
14.1. Introduction ........................................ 365
14.2. Greenhouse effect and sea level rise ................ 365
14.3. General effects of a rising sea level ............... 366
14.4. Effects of a changing climate ....................... 369
14.5. Effects on cliffs and shore platforms................ 369
14.6. Effects on beaches, spits and barriers .............. 372
14.7. Effects on coastal dunes ............................ 376
14.8. Effects on intertidal wetlands ...................... 376
14.9. Effects on estuaries and lagoons .................... 379
14.10.Effects on deltaic coasts ........................... 380
14.11.Effects on coral and algal reefs .................... 381
14.12.Conclusion .......................................... 385
14.13.Summary ............................................. 385
References .................................................... 387
Index ......................................................... 405
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