Series Editors' Foreword .................................... xviii
Foreword ...................................................... xix
PART A PRINCIPLES OF SURFACE ENGINEERING ....................... 1
Chapter 1 Parameters of frictional contact ..................... 3
1.1 Introduction ................................................ 3
1.2 The surface ................................................. 6
1.2.1 Definition ............................................ 6
1.2.2 Surface energy ........................................ 6
1.2.3 Structural and physical state ......................... 6
1.2.4 The material .......................................... 9
1.2.5 Topography ........................................... 13
1.2.6 Contact geometry and shape of components ............. 23
1.3 Contact stressses .......................................... 24
1.3.1 Load ................................................. 24
1.3.2 Speed ................................................ 25
1.3.3 Product P x V ........................................ 26
1.3.4 Temperature .......................................... 27
1.4 Environment ............................................... 30
1.5 Mode and amplitude of displacement of components ........... 33
1.6 Choice of materials ........................................ 33
1.6.1 Heat dissipation ..................................... 33
1.6.2 Mechanical behaviour ................................. 36
1.6.3 Wear and consumption ................................. 39
1.6.4 Note ................................................. 39
1.7 Notes on conducting an investigation of a friction
problem .................................................... 40
1.7.1 Analysis of a friction problem ....................... 40
1.7.2 Experimentation and simulation ....................... 40
Chapter 2 Appendix to Chapter 1: further parameters and
definitions ......................................... 45
2.1 Adhesion .................................................. 45
2.1.1 Origins and consequences ............................ 45
2.1.2 Principal factors influencing adhesion .............. 46
2.1.3 General recommendations ............................. 48
2.1.4 Metallurgical solubility of materials ............... 50
2.2 Lubrication ............................................... 50
2.2.1 Field of application ................................ 50
2.2.2 Purpose of lubrication .............................. 51
2.2.3 Conventional lubricants ............................. 52
2.2.4 Methods of lubrication .............................. 56
2.2.5 Effects of STAC (see also topography) ............... 59
2.3 Coefficient of friction ................................... 62
2.3.1 Definitions ......................................... 62
2.3.2 Coefficients of static and dynamic friction ......... 64
2.3.3 Origin of frictional forces and their consequences
in practice ......................................... 64
2.3.4 Orders of magnitude of the coefficient of
friction ............................................ 64
2.3.5 Importance of the coefficient of friction ........... 66
2.4 Mechanical surface stresses ............................... 67
2.4.1 Distributed pressure ................................ 67
2.4.2 Hertzian calculation ................................ 69
2.4.3 Analysis of Hertzian contact ........................ 69
2.4.4 Influence of forces due to friction; the effect of
tangential stresses and allowance for the friction
coefficient ......................................... 71
2.4.5 Intrinsic curve of friction ......................... 74
2.4.6 Relationships between the principal stresses and
the behaviour of surfaces ........................... 75
2.4.7 Residual stresses ................................... 76
2.4.8 Conformability ...................................... 81
2.4.9 General recommendations ............................. 83
2.5 Wetting and spreading ..................................... 83
2.6 Roughness ................................................. 85
2.6.1 Principal roughness parameters ...................... 85
2.6.2 Concept of 'microroughness' ......................... 86
2.7 Running-in ................................................ 86
2.8 Galvanic corrosion ........................................ 90
2.8.1 Corrosion by galvanic coupling ...................... 90
2.8.2 Corrosion by 'concentration cell' ................... 91
2.9 Stress corrosion, fatigue corrosion ....................... 91
2.10 Other mechanical stresses and properties .................. 94
2.10.1 Notch effect ....................................... 94
2.10.2 Toughness, stress intensity factor ................. 94
2.10.3 Creep .............................................. 94
2.10.4 Fretting fatigue ................................... 95
2.10.5 Work hardening ..................................... 95
Chapter 3 Principal phenomena of surface transformation and
wear ................................................ 97
3.1 Introduction ............................................... 97
3.2 Surface transformations or changes ......................... 98
3.2.1 Chemical transformations ............................. 98
3.2.2 Physical and structural transformations .............. 98
3.2.3 Mechanical transfer ................................. 100
3.2.4 Adhesive transfer ................................... 101
3.2.5 Tribocorrosion (or tribochemical wear) .............. 101
3.3 Different types of wear ................................... 103
3.3.1 Wear by adhesion (adhesive wear, scuffing, etc.) .... 103
3.3.2 Wear by very high stresses .......................... 105
3.3.3 Wear by surface fatigue (subsurface delamination,
pitting, etc.) ...................................... 108
3.3.4 Wear by abrasion or erosion
(abrasive or erosive wear) .......................... 108
3.3.5 Wear by fretting corrosion (contact corrosion,
wear caused by small clearances, etc.) .............. 112
3.4 Other types of damage ..................................... 114
3.4.1 Thermal shock and thermal fatigue ................... 114
3.4.2 Cavitation .......................................... 114
3.4.3 Electric arcs ....................................... 116
3.5 Remarks and advice on conducting an assessment ............ 116
Chapter 4 The role of STAC: a summary ........................ 121
Appendix to Part A ............................................ 127
Abbreviations and symbols used in the text and figures ........ 129
Bibliography .................................................. 131
PART B Properties, applications, and implementation of
STAC .................................................. 133
Chapter 1 Introduction The importance of STAC in tribology ... 135
1.1 Surface treatments and coatings, progress and
innovation ................................................ 135
1.2 Technical and economic issues related to friction and
wear ...................................................... 135
1.3 The role of STAC .......................................... 136
Chapter 2 Outlining the range of STAC ........................ 155
2.1 Classification of STAC .................................... 155
2.2 General remarks ........................................... 155
2.2.1 Operational properties .............................. 155
2.2.2 Warning about the nature of data .................... 160
Chapter 3 Properties and applications of STAC ................ 161
Preliminary remarks ........................................... 161
3.1 Hardening and prestressing treatments ..................... 162
3.1.1 General description ................................. 162
3.1.2 Basic information and comparative data .............. 162
3.1.3 Surface hardening ................................... 163
3.1.4 Mechanical treatments ............................... 168
3.1.5 Carburizing and carbonitriding ...................... 176
3.1.6 Nitriding and derived processes ..................... 187
3.1.7 Ion implantation .................................... 198
3.2 Hard and ultra-hard coatings - ceramics ................... 202
3.2.1 General description ................................. 202
3.2.2 Basic information and comparative data .............. 202
3.2.3 Coatings obtained by thermal spraying ............... 203
3.2.4 Coatings formed by PVD and CVD ...................... 213
3.2.5 Chromizing, vanadizing, and bonding treatments ...... 225
3.2.6 Anodic oxidation of light alloys .................... 229
3.3 Coatings based on hard metals ............................. 232
3.3.1 General description ................................. 232
3.3.2 Basic information and comparative data .............. 232
3.3.3 Hard chromium coatings .............................. 236
3.3.4 Electroless (autocatalytic) nickel coatings ......... 240
3.3.5 Composite metallic coatings ......................... 244
3.3.6 Molybdenum coatings ................................. 245
3.3.7 Metallic diffusion coatings ......................... 248
3.4 Coatings based on soft metals ............................. 253
3.4.1 General description ................................. 253
3.4.2 Basic information and comparative data .............. 253
3.4.3 Soft metal and antifriction coatings ................ 255
3.5 Lubricant retention treatments ............................ 257
3.5.1 General description ................................. 257
3.5.2 Manganese phosphate coatings ........................ 258
3.5.3 Phosphate coating based on manganese ................ 259
3.5.4 Low-temperature sulphidation ........................ 259
3.6 Self-lubricating coatings ................................. 265
3.6.1 General description ................................. 265
3.6.2 Basic information and comparative data .............. 265
3.6.3 Self-lubricating coatings obtained by liquid
coating ............................................. 267
Chapter 4 Appendix to Chapter 3: materials for tribological
use ................................................ 279
4.1 Solid lubricants .......................................... 279
4.1.1 Area of application and definitions ................. 279
4.1.2 Principal types of solid lubricant .................. 280
4.1.3 Notes on high-temperature service conditions ........ 282
4.1.4 Use in different forms .............................. 283
4.2 Ceramics and very hard materials .......................... 284
4.2.1 Area of application and definitions ................. 284
4.2.2 Basic properties .................................... 284
4.2.3 Special cases: pseudodiamonds and carbonaceous
materials ........................................... 291
4.2.4 Use in different forms .............................. 293
4.3 Polymers .................................................. 296
4.3.1 Definitions ......................................... 296
4.3.2 Basic properties .................................... 298
4.3.3 Use in different forms .............................. 298
4.4 Antifriction materials .................................... 299
4.4.1 Definition .......................................... 299
4.4.2 General properties .................................. 299
4.4.3 Different forms of use .............................. 301
4.5 Superalloys ............................................... 301
4.5.1 Definition .......................................... 301
4.5.2 General properties .................................. 302
4.5.3 Different forms of use .............................. 303
4.5.4 Areas and examples of applications .................. 303
4.6 Other materials ........................................... 303
4.6.1 Grey cast irons ..................................... 303
4.6.2 White cast irons .................................... 304
4.6.3 Copper alloys ....................................... 304
4.6.4 Sintered materials impregnated with oil ............. 305
4.6.5 Frictional composites ............................... 306
4.7 Guide to selection of materials ........................... 307
Chapter 5 Principles of STAC processes ....................... 309
Preliminary remarks ........................................... 309
5.1 Surface hardening ........................................ 310
5.1.1 General principle ................................. 310
5.1.2 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 310
5.1.3 Principal processes ............................... 310
5.1.4 Characteristics (see also Section 5.1.7) .......... 312
5.1.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 312
5.1.6 Operating parameters .............................. 312
5.1.7 Distinctive characteristics of the different
processes ......................................... 313
5.2 Mechanical treatments .................................... 314
5.2.1 General principle ................................. 314
5.2.2 Main purpose of the treatments .................... 314
5.2.3 Principal processes ............................... 314
5.2.4 Characteristics ................................... 317
5.2.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 318
5.2.6 Operating parameters .............................. 318
5.3 Thermochemical diffusion treatments: diffusion of
metalloids; diffusion of carbon (carburizing), and
carbon + nitrogen (carbonitriding) ....................... 319
5.3.1 General principle ................................. 319
5.3.2 Variants .......................................... 319
5.3.3 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 320
5.3.4 Characteristics (see also Section 5.3.7) .......... 320
5.3.5 Special limitations and recommendations
(see also Section 5.3.7) .......................... 320
5.3.6 Operating parameters .............................. 320
5.3.7 Distinctive characteristics of the different
process variants .................................. 321
5.4 Thermochemical diffusion treatments: diffusion of
metalloids; diffusion of nitrogen (+ carbon, + sulphur,
+ oxygen) (nitriding and derived treatments) ............. 322
5.4.1 General principle ................................. 322
5.4.2 Variants .......................................... 323
5.4.3 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 323
5.4.4 Characteristics (see also Section 5.4.7) .......... 323
5.4.5 Special limitations and recommendations
(see also Section 5.4.7) .......................... 323
5.4.6 Operating parameters .............................. 323
5.4.7 Distinctive characteristics of the different
variants .......................................... 324
5.5 Thermochemical diffusion treatments: diffusion of
metals (Cr, V) (chromizing, vanadizing); diffusion of
a metalloid (B) (bonding) ................................ 325
5.5.1 General principle ................................. 325
5.5.2 Variants .......................................... 325
5.5.3 Principal types of coating formed by
the treatments .................................... 325
5.5.4 Characteristics ................................... 325
5.5.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 326
5.5.6 Operating parameters .............................. 326
5.6 Diffused metallic deposits ............................... 327
5.6.1 General principle ................................. 327
5.6.2 Principal types of coating formed by
the treatments .................................... 327
5.6.3 Characteristics ................................... 327
5.6.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 328
5.6.5 Operating parameters .............................. 328
5.7 Ion implantation ......................................... 329
5.7.1 General principle ................................. 329
5.7.2 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 329
5.7.3 Characteristics ................................... 329
5.7.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 330
5.7.5 Operating parameters .............................. 330
5.8 Chemical conversion: phosphate coating ................... 330
5.8.1 General principle ................................. 330
5.8.2 Main purpose of the treatment and the principal
types of treatment ................................ 330
5.8.3 Characteristics (Mn-based phosphate coating) ...... 330
5.8.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 331
5.8.5 Operating parameters .............................. 331
5.9 Electrochemical conversions: Electrolysis of iron
alloys in molten salt baths - low-temperature
sulphidation ............................................. 331
5.9.1 General principle ................................. 331
5.9.2 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 332
5.9.3 Characteristics ................................... 332
5.9.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 332
5.9.5 Operating parameters .............................. 332
5.10 Electrochemical conversions; anodizing of light alloys ... 333
5.10.1 General principle ................................. 333
5.10.2 Variants .......................................... 333
5.10.3 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 333
5.10.4 Characteristics of hard anodizing ................. 333
5.10.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 334
5.10.6 Operating parameters .............................. 334
5.11 Electrolytic coatings .................................... 334
5.11.1 General principle ................................. 334
5.11.2 Principal coatings formed by the treatment ........ 335
5.11.3 Characteristics ................................... 335
5.11.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 335
5.11.5 Operating parameters .............................. 336
5.12 Autocatalytic (or electroless) nickel coatings ........... 336
5.12.1 General principle ................................. 336
5.12.2 Principal coatings formed by the treatment ........ 336
5.12.3 Characteristics (electroless nickel plating) ...... 337
5.12.4 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 337
5.12.5 Operating parameters .............................. 337
5.13 Liquid coatings .......................................... 338
5.13.1 General principle ................................. 338
5.13.2 Variants .......................................... 338
5.13.3 Main purpose of the treatment ..................... 338
5.13.4 Characteristics ................................... 338
5.13.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 339
5.13.6 Operating parameters .............................. 339
5.14 Coating by thermal spraying .............................. 340
5.14.1 General principle ................................. 340
5.14.2 Variants .......................................... 340
5.14.3 Principal coatings formed by the treatment ........ 341
5.14.4 Characteristics ................................... 342
5.14.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 342
5.14.6 Operating parameters .............................. 342
5.14.7 Distinctive characteristics of the different
variants (indicative data) ........................ 342
5.15 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) ......................... 344
5.15.1 General principle ................................. 344
5.15.2 Variants (basic principles) ....................... 344
5.15.3 Principal coatings formed by the treatment ........ 346
5.15.4 Characteristics ................................... 346
5.15.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 346
5.15.6 Operating parameters .............................. 346
5.16 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) ......................... 347
5.16.1 General principle ................................. 347
5.16.2 Variants .......................................... 347
5.16.3 Principal coatings formed by the treatment ........ 348
5.16.4 Characteristics ................................... 348
5.16.5 Special limitations and recommendations ........... 348
5.16.6 Operating parameters .............................. 348
5.17 Ceramic coating by slurry coating ........................ 349
5.17.1 General principle ................................. 349
5.17.2 Main purpose of treatment ......................... 349
5.17.3 Characteristics ................................... 349
Appendix: Examples of industrial equipment .................... 351
Chapter 6 Summary: guidelines for selecting and using STAC ... 367
6.1 Properties conferred by STAC .............................. 367
6.1.1 Basic characteristics of STAC and recommended
areas of application (Figs 214 to 221) .............. 367
6.1.2 Principal multifunction or 'composite' treatments
(Figs 222 to 225) ................................... 367
6.1.3 Simplified description of the distinctive
intrinsic properties of the different types of
STAC (Fig. 226) ..................................... 367
6.2 Process parameters and conditions - technological
limitations ............................................... 367
6.3 Optimum process and service conditions .................... 368
6.3.1 Roughness values (Figs 228 and 229) ................. 378
6.3.2 Thickness: minimum, maximum, optimum
(Figs 230 to 232) ................................... 378
6.3.3 Substrates: mechanical and physical properties
(Figs 233 and 234) .................................. 378
6.3.4 Choice of component to be treated: depending on
mechanical and heat removal criteria (Fig. 235) ..... 378
6.3.5 Possible counterfaces: examples of sliding couples
and their potential properties (Figs 236 to 238) .... 378
6.3.6 Consideration of secondary effects and
corresponding recommendations ....................... 378
Appendix to Part B ............................................ 397
Abbreviations and symbols used in the text and figures ........ 399
Bibliography .................................................. 401
To find out more about the suppliers .......................... 403
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