Preface ....................................................... vii
PART I. HISTORY AND INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction ................................................ 3
1.1. Definitions ........................................... 3
1.2. General Properties .................................... 4
1.3. Types of Ceramic and their Applications ............... 5
1.4. Market ................................................ 6
1.5. Critical Issues for the Future ........................ 7
1.6. Relationship between Microstructure, Processing
and Properties ........................................ 8
1.7. Safety ................................................ 9
1.8. Ceramics on the Internet ............................. 10
1.9. On Units ............................................. 10
2. Some History ............................................... 15
2.1. Earliest Ceramics: The Stone Age ..................... 15
2.2. Ceramics in Ancient Civilizations .................... 17
2.3. Clay ................................................. 19
2.4. Types of Pottery ..................................... 19
2.5. Glazes ............................................... 20
2.6. Development of a Ceramics Industry ................... 21
2.7. Plaster and Cement ................................... 22
2.8. Brief History of Glass ............................... 24
2.9. Brief History of Refractories ........................ 25
2.10. Major Landmarks of the Twentieth Century ............. 26
2.11. Museums .............................................. 28
2.12. Societies ............................................ 29
2.13. Ceramic Education .................................... 29
PART II. MATERIALS
3. Background You Need to Know ................................ 35
3.1. The Atom ............................................. 35
3.2. Energy Levels ........................................ 36
3.3. Electron Waves ....................................... 37
3.4. Quantum Numbers ...................................... 37
3.5. Assigning Quantum Numbers ............................ 39
3.6. Ions ................................................. 42
3.7. Electronegativity .................................... 44
3.8. Thermodynamics: The Driving Force for Change ......... 45
3.9. Kinetics: The Speed of Change ........................ 47
4. Bonds and Energy Bands ..................................... 51
4.1. Types of Interatomic Bond ............................ 51
4.2. Young's Modulus ...................................... 51
4.3. Ionic Bonding ........................................ 53
4.4. Covalent Bonding ..................................... 58
4.5. Metallic Bonding in Ceramics ......................... 63
4.6. Mixed Bonding ........................................ 64
4.7. Secondary Bonding .................................... 64
4.8. Electron Energy Bands in Ceramics .................... 66
5. Models, Crystals, and Chemistry ............................ 71
5.1. Terms and Definitions ................................ 71
5.2. Symmetry and Crystallography ......................... 74
5.3. Lattice Points, Directions, and Planes ............... 75
5.4. The Importance of Crystallography .................... 76
5.5. Pauling's Rules ...................................... 76
5.6. Close-Packed Arrangements: Interstitial Sites ........ 79
5.7. Notation for Crystal Structures ...................... 81
5.8. Structure, Composition, and Temperature .............. 81
5.9. Crystals, Glass, Solids, and Liquid .................. 82
5.10. Defects .............................................. 83
5.11. Computer Modeling .................................... 83
6. Binary Compounds ........................................... 87
6.1. Background ........................................... 87
6.2. CsCl ................................................. 88
6.3. NaCl (MgO, TiC, PbS) ................................. 88
6.4. GaAs (β-SiC) ......................................... 89
6.5. A1N (BeO, ZnO) ....................................... 90
6.6. CaF2 ................................................. 91
6.7. FeS2 ................................................. 92
6.8. Cu20 ................................................. 93
6.9. CuO .................................................. 93
6.10. Ti02 ................................................. 93
6.11. A1203 ................................................ 94
6.12. MoS2 and CdI2 ........................................ 95
6.13. Polymorphs, Polytypes, and Polytypoids ............... 96
7. Complex Crystal and Glass Structures ...................... 100
7.1. Introduction ........................................ 100
7.2. Spinel .............................................. 101
7.3. Perovskite .......................................... 102
7.4. The Silicates and Structures Based on Si04 .......... 104
7.5. Silica .............................................. 105
7.6. Olivine ............................................. 106
7.7. Garnets ............................................. 107
7.8. Ring Silicates ...................................... 107
7.9. Micas and Other Layer Materials ..................... 108
7.10. Clay Minerals ....................................... 109
7.11. Pyroxene ............................................ 109
7.12. β-Aluminas and Related Materials .................... 110
7.13. Calcium Aluminate and Related Materials ............. 111
7.14. Mullite ............................................. 111
7.15. Monazite ............................................ 111
7.16. YBa2Cu307 and Related High-Temperature
Superconductors (HTSCs) ............................. 112
7.17. Si3N4, SiAlONs, and Related Materials ................ 113
7.18. Fullerenes and Nanotubes ............................ 113
7.19. Zeolites and Microporous Compounds .................. 114
7.20. Zachariasen's Rules for the Structure of Glass ...... 115
7.21. Revisiting Glass Structures ......................... 117
8. Equilibrium Phase Diagrams ................................ 120
8.1. What's Special about Ceramics? ...................... 120
8.2. Determining Phase Diagrams .......................... 121
8.3. Phase Diagrams for Ceramists: The Books ............. 124
8.4. Gibbs Phase Rule .................................... 124
8.5. One Component (C = 1) ............................... 125
8.6. Two Components (C = 2) .............................. 126
8.7. Three and More Components ........................... 128
8.8. Composition with Variable Oxygen Partial Pressure ... 130
8.9. Quaternary Diagrams and Temperature ................. 132
8.10. Congruent and Incongruent Melting ................... 132
8.11. Miscibility Gaps in Glass ........................... 133
PART III. TOOLS
9. Furnaces .................................................. 139
9.1. The Need for High Temperatures ...................... 139
9.2. Types of Furnace .................................... 139
9.3. Combustion Furnaces ................................. 140
9.4. Electrically Heated Furnaces ........................ 141
9.5. Batch or Continuous Operation ....................... 141
9.6. Indirect Heating .................................... 143
9.7. Heating Elements .................................... 144
9.8. Refractories ........................................ 146
9.9. Furniture, Tubes, and Crucibles ..................... 147
9.10. Firing Process ...................................... 148
9.11. Heat Transfer ....................................... 148
9.12. Measuring Temperature ............................... 149
9.13. Safety .............................................. 151
10. Characterizing Structure, Defects, and Chemistry .......... 154
10.1. Characterizing Ceramics ............................. 154
10.2. Imaging Using Visible-Light, IR, and UV ............. 155
10.3. Imaging Using X-rays and CT Scans ................... 157
10.4. Imaging in the SEM .................................. 158
10.5. Imaging in the TEM .................................. 159
10.6. Scanning-Probe Microscopy ........................... 161
10.7. Scattering and Diffraction Techniques ............... 162
10.8. Photon Scattering ................................... 163
10.9. Raman and IR Spectroscopy ........................... 163
10.10.NMR Spectroscopy and Spectrometry ................... 165
10.11.Mцssbauer Spectroscopy and Spectrometry ............. 166
10.12.Diffraction in the EM ............................... 168
10.13.Ion Scattering (RBS) ................................ 168
10.14.X-ray Diffraction and Databases ..................... 169
10.15.Neutron Scattering .................................. 171
10.16.Mass Spectrometry ................................... 172
10.17.Spectrometry in the EM .............................. 172
10.18.Electron Spectroscopy ............................... 174
10.19.Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) ................... 175
10.20.Thermal Analysis .................................... 175
PART V. DEFECTS
11. Point Defects, Charge, and Diffusion ...................... 181
11.1. Are Defects in Ceramics Different? .................. 181
11.2. Types of Point Defects .............................. 182
11.3. What Is Special for Ceramics? ....................... 183
11.4. What Type of Defects Form? .......................... 184
11.5. Equilibrium Defect Concentrations ................... 184
11.6. Writing Equations for Point Defects ................. 186
11.7. Solid Solutions ..................................... 187
11.8. Association of Point Defects ........................ 189
11.9. Color Centers ....................................... 190
11.10.Creation of Point Defects in Ceramics ............... 191
11.11.Experimental Studies of Point Defects ............... 192
11.12.Diffusion ........................................... 192
11.13.Diffusion in Impure, or Doped, Ceramics ............. 193
11.14.Movement of Defects ................................. 197
11.15.Diffusion and Ionic Conductivity .................... 197
11.16.Computing ........................................... 199
12. Are Dislocations Unimportant? ............................. 201
12.1. A Quick Review of Dislocations ...................... 202
12.2. Summary of Dislocation Properties ................... 206
12.3. Observation of Dislocations ......................... 206
12.4. Dislocations in Ceramics ............................ 208
12.5. Structure of the Core ............................... 208
12.6. Detailed Geometry ................................... 211
12.7. Defects on Dislocations ............................. 214
12.8. Dislocations and Diffusion .......................... 215
12.9. Movement of Dislocations ............................ 216
12.10.Multiplication of Dislocations ...................... 216
12.11.Dislocation Interactions ............................ 217
12.12.At the Surface ...................................... 219
12.13.Indentation, Scratching, and Cracks ................. 219
12.14.Dislocations with Different Cores ................... 220
13. Surfaces, Nanoparticles, and Foams ........................ 224
13.1. Background to Surfaces .............................. 224
13.2. Ceramic Surfaces .................................... 225
13.3. Surface Energy ...................................... 225
13.4. Surface Structure ................................... 227
13.5. Curved Surfaces and Pressure ........................ 230
13.6. Capillarity ......................................... 230
13.7. Wetting and Dewetting ............................... 231
13.8. Foams ............................................... 232
13.9. Epitaxy and Film Growth ............................. 233
13.10.Film Growth in 2D: Nucleation ....................... 233
13.11.Film Growth in 2D: Mechanisms ....................... 234
13.12.Characterizing Surfaces ............................. 235
13.13.Steps ............................................... 239
13.14.In Situ ............................................. 240
13.15.Surfaces and Nanoparticles .......................... 241
13.16.Computer Modeling ................................... 241
13.17.Introduction to Properties .......................... 242
14. Interfaces in Polycrystals ................................ 246
14.1. What Are Grain Boundaries? .......................... 246
14.2. For Ceramics ........................................ 248
14.3. GB Energy ........................................... 249
14.4. Low-Angle GBs ....................................... 251
14.5. High-Angle GBs ...................................... 254
14.6. Twin Boundaries ..................................... 255
14.7. General Boundaries .................................. 258
14.8. GB Films ............................................ 259
14.9. Triple Junctions and GB Grooves ..................... 262
14.10.Characterizing GBs .................................. 263
14.11.GBs in Thin Films ................................... 264
14.12.Space Charge and Charged Boundaries ................. 265
14.13.Modeling ............................................ 265
14.14.Some Properties ..................................... 265
15. Phase. Boundaries, Particles, and Pores ................... 269
15.1. The Importance ...................................... 269
15.2. Different Types ..................................... 269
15.3. Compared to Other Materials ......................... 270
15.4. Energy .............................................. 270
15.5. The Structure of PBs ................................ 271
15.6. Particles ........................................... 272
15.7. Use of Particles .................................... 276
15.8. Nucleation and Growth of Particles .................. 276
15.9. Pores ............................................... 277
15.10.Measuring Porosity .................................. 278
15.11.Porous Ceramics ..................................... 279
15.12.Glass/Crystal Phase Boundaries ...................... 280
15.13.Eutectics ........................................... 281
15.14.Metal/Ceramic PBs ................................... 282
15.15.Forming PBs by Joining .............................. 283
PART V. MECHANICAL STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS
16. Mechanical Testing ........................................ 289
16.1. Philosophy .......................................... 289
16.2. Types of Testing .................................... 291
16.3. Elastic Constants and Other "Constants" ............. 292
16.4. Effect of Microstructure on Elastic Moduli .......... 294
16.5. Test Temperature .................................... 295
16.6. Test Environment .................................... 296
16.7. Testing in Compression and Tension .................. 296
16.8. Three- and Four-Point Bending ....................... 297
16.9. Kk from Bend Test ................................... 298
16.10.Indentation ......................................... 299
16.11.Fracture Toughness from Indentation ................. 300
16.12.Nanoindentation ..................................... 301
16.13.Ultrasonic Testing .................................. 301
16.14.Design and Statistics ............................... 302
16.15.SPT Diagrams ........................................ 305
17. Deforming: Plasticity ..................................... 309
17.1. Plastic Deformation ................................. 309
17.2. Dislocation Glide ................................... 310
17.3. Slip in Alumina ..................................... 312
17.4. Plastic Deformation in Single Crystals .............. 313
17.5. Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals ................. 314
17.6. Dislocation Velocity and Pinning .................... 315
17.7. Creep ............................................... 317
17.8. Dislocation Creep ................................... 317
17.9. Diffusion-Controlled Creep .......................... 318
17.10. Grain-Boundary Sliding ............................. 318
17.11. Tertiary Creep and Cavitation ...................... 319
17.12. Creep Deformation Maps ............................. 321
17.13. Viscous Flow ....................................... 321
17.14. Superplasticity .................................... 322
18. Fracturine: Brittleness ................................... 325
18.1. The Importance of Brittleness ....................... 325
18.2. Theoretical Strength: The Orowan Equation ........... 326
18.3. The Effect of Flaws: The Griffith Equation .......... 327
18.4. The Crack Tip: The Inglis Equation .................. 329
18.5. Stress Intensity Factor ............................. 329
18.6. R Curves ............................................ 330
18.7. Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking ............... 331
18.8. Failure and Fractography ............................ 332
18.9. Toughening and Ceramic Matrix Composites ............ 335
18.10.Machinable Glass-Ceramics ........................... 338
18.11.Wear ................................................ 338
18.12.Grinding and Polishing .............................. 339
PART VI. PROCESSING
19. Raw Materials ............................................. 345
19.1. Geology, Minerals, and Ores ......................... 345
19.2. Mineral Formation ................................... 345
19.3. Beneficiation ....................................... 347
19.4. Weights and Measures ................................ 347
19.5. Silica .............................................. 348
19.6. Silicates ........................................... 348
19.7. Oxides .............................................. 351
19.8. Nonoxides ........................................... 354
20. Powders, Fibers, Platelets, and Composites ................ 359
20.1. Making Powders ...................................... 359
20.2. Types of Powders .................................... 360
20.3. Mechanical Milling .................................. 360
20.4. Spray Drying ........................................ 362
20.5. Powders by Sol-Gel Processing ....................... 363
20.6. Powders by Precipitation ............................ 363
20.7. Chemical Routes to Nonoxide Powders ................. 364
20.8. Platelets ........................................... 365
20.9. Nanopowders by Vapor-Phase Reactions ................ 365
20.10.Characterizing Powders .............................. 366
20.11.Characterizing Powders by Microscopy ................ 366
20.12.Sieving ............................................. 366
20.13.Sedimentation ....................................... 367
20.14.The Coulter Counter ................................. 368
20.15.Characterizing Powders by Light Scattering .......... 368
20.16.Characterizing Powders by X-ray Diffraction ......... 369
20.17.Measuring Surface Area (the BET Method) ............. 369
20.18.Determining Particle Composition and Purity ......... 370
20.19.Making Fibers and Whiskers .......................... 370
20.20.Oxide Fibers ........................................ 371
20.21.Whiskers ............................................ 372
20.22.Glass Fibers ........................................ 372
20.23.Coating Fibers ...................................... 373
20.24.Making Ceramic-Matrix Composites .................... 374
20.25.Ceramic-Matrix Composites from Powders
and Slurries ........................................ 374
20.26.Ceramic-Matrix Composites by Infiltration ........... 375
20.27.In Situ Processes ................................... 375
21. Glass and Glass-Ceramics .................................. 379
21.1. Definitions ......................................... 379
21.2. History ............................................. 380
21.3. Viscosity, η ........................................ 383
21.4. Glass: A Summary of Its Properties, or Not .......... 385
21.5. Defects in Glass .................................... 386
21.6. Heterogeneous Glass ................................. 386
21.7. Yttrium-Aluminum Glass .............................. 386
21.8. Coloring Glass ...................................... 386
21.9. Glass Laser ......................................... 388
21.10.Precipitates in Glass ............................... 388
21.11.Crystallizing Glass ................................. 388
21.12.Glass as Glaze and Enamel ........................... 390
21.13.Corrosion of Glass and Glaze ........................ 392
21.14.Types of Ceramic Glasses ............................ 393
21.15.Natural Glass ....................................... 394
21.16.The Physics of Glass ................................ 396
22. Sols, Gels, and Organic Chemistry ......................... 400
22.1. Sol-Gel Processing .................................. 400
22.2. Structure and Synthesis of Alkoxides ................ 401
22.3. Properties of Alkoxides ............................. 402
22.4. The Sol-Gel Process Using Metal Alkoxides ........... 403
22.5. Characterization of the Sol-Gel Process ............. 406
22.6. Powders, Coatings, Fibers, Crystalline, or Glass .... 407
23. Shaping and Forming ....................................... 412
23.1. The Words ........................................... 412
23.2. Binders and Plasticizers ............................ 413
23.3. Slip and Slurry ..................................... 413
23.4. Dry Pressing ........................................ 414
23.5. Hot Pressing ........................................ 414
23.6. Cold Isostatic Pressing ............................. 415
23.7. Hot Isostatic Pressing .............................. 416
23.8. Slip Casting ........................................ 417
23.9. Extrusion ........................................... 418
23.10.Injection Molding ................................... 419
23.11.Rapid Prototyping ................................... 420
23.12.Green Machining ..................................... 420
23.13.Binder Burnout ...................................... 421
23.14.Final Machining ..................................... 421
23.15.Making Porous Ceramics .............................. 422
23.16.Shaping Pottery ..................................... 422
23.17.Shaping Glass ....................................... 423
24. Sintering and Grain Growth ................................ 427
24.1. The Sintering Process ............................... 427
24.2. The Terminology of Sintering ........................ 429
24.3. Capillary Forces and Surface Forces ................. 429
24.4. Sintering Spheres and Wires ......................... 429
24.5. Grain Growth ........................................ 431
24.6. Sintering and Diffusion ............................. 431
24.7. Liquid-Phase Sintering .............................. 433
24.8. Hot Pressing ........................................ 433
24.9. Pinning Grain Boundaries ............................ 434
24.10.More Grain Growth ................................... 435
24.11.Grain Boundaries, Surfaces, and Sintering ........... 436
24.12.Exaggerated Grain Growth ............................ 437
24.13.Fabricating Complex Shapes .......................... 438
24.14.Pottery ............................................. 439
24.15.Pores and Porous Ceramics ........................... 439
24.16.Sintering with Two and Three Phases ................. 440
24.17.Examples of Sintering in Action ..................... 441
24.18.Computer Modeling ................................... 441
25. Solid-State Phase Transformations and Reactions ........... 444
25.1. Transformations and Reactions: The Link ............. 444
25.2. The Terminology ..................................... 445
25.3. Technology .......................................... 445
25.4. Phase Transformations without Changing Chemistry .... 447
25.5. Phase Transformations Changing Chemistry ............ 448
25.6. Methods for Studying Kinetics ....................... 449
25.7. Diffusion through a Layer: Slip Casting ............. 450
25.8. Diffusion through a Layer: Solid-State Reactions .... 451
25.9. The Spinel-Forming Reaction ......................... 451
25.10.Inert Markers and Reaction Barriers ................. 452
25.11.Simplified Darken Equation .......................... 453
25.12.The Incubation Period ............................... 454
25.13.Particle Growth and the Effect of Misfit ............ 454
25.14.Thin-Film Reactions ................................. 455
25.15.Reactions in an Electric Field ...................... 457
25.16.Phase Transformations Involving Glass ............... 458
25.17.Pottery ............................................. 459
25.18.Cement .............................................. 459
25.19.Reactions Involving a Gas Phase ..................... 460
25.20.Curved Interfaces ................................... 461
26. Processing Glass and Glass-Ceramics ....................... 463
26.1. The Market for Glass and Glass Products ............. 463
26.2. Processing Bulk Glasses ............................. 463
26.3. Bubbles ............................................. 467
26.4. Flat Glass .......................................... 468
26.5. Float-Glass ......................................... 469
26.6. Glassblowing ........................................ 470
26.7. Coating Glass ....................................... 472
26.8. Safety Glass ........................................ 473
26.9. Foam Glass .......................................... 473
26.10.Sealing Glass ....................................... 473
26.11.Enamel .............................................. 474
26.12.Photochromic Glass .................................. 474
26.13.Ceramming: Changing Glass to Glass-Ceramics ......... 474
26.14.Glass for Art and Sculpture ......................... 476
26.15.Glass for Science and Engineering ................... 478
27. Coatings and Thick Films .................................. 481
27.1. Defining Thick Film ................................. 481
27.2. Tape Casting ........................................ 481
27.3. Dip Coating ......................................... 484
27.4. Spin Coating ........................................ 484
27.5. Spraying ............................................ 485
27.6. Electrophoretic Deposition .......................... 486
27.7. Thick-Film Circuits ................................. 488
28. Thin Films and Vapor Deposition ........................... 494
28.1. The Difference between Thin Films and Thick Films ... 494
28.2. Acronyms, Adjectives, and Hyphens ................... 494
28.3. Requirements for Thin Ceramic Films ................. 495
28.4. Chemical Vapor Deposition ........................... 495
28.5. Thermodynamics of Chemical Vapor Deposition ......... 497
28.6. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Ceramic Films for
Semiconductor Devices ............................... 498
28.7. Types of Chemical Vapor Deposition .................. 499
28.8. Chemical Vapor Deposition Safety .................... 500
28.9. Evaporation ......................................... 500
28.10.Sputtering .......................................... 501
28.11.Molecular-Beam Epitaxy .............................. 502
28.12.Pulsed-Laser Deposition ............................. 503
28.13.Ion-Beam-Assisted Deposition ........................ 504
28.14.Substrates .......................................... 504
29. Growing Single Crystals ................................... 507
29.1. Why Single Crystals? ................................ 507
29.2. A Brief History of Growing Ceramic Single
Crystals ............................................ 507
29.3. Methods for Growing Single Crystals of Ceramics ..... 508
29.4. Melt Technique: Verneuil (Flame-Fusion) ............. 509
29.5. Melt Technique: Arc-Image Growth .................... 511
29.6. Melt Technique: Czochralski ......................... 511
29.7. Melt Technique: Skull Melting ....................... 514
29.8. Melt Technique: Bridgman-Stockbarger ................ 515
29.9. Melt Technique: Heat-Exchange Method ................ 516
29.10.Applying Phase Diagrams to Single-Crystal
Growth .............................................. 516
29.11.Solution Technique: Hydrothermal .................... 517
29.12.Solution Technique: Hydrothermal Growth at
Low Temperature ..................................... 519
29.13.Solution Technique: Flux Growth ..................... 519
29.14.Solution Technique: Growing Diamonds ................ 521
29.15.Vapor Technique: Vapor-Liquid-Solid ................. 521
29.16.Vapor Technique: Sublimation ........................ 522
29.17.Preparing Substrates for Thin-Film Applications ..... 522
29.18.Growing Nanowires and Nanotubes by
Vapor-Liquid-Solid and Not .......................... 522
PART VII. PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
30. Conducting Charge or Not .................................. 529
30.1. Ceramics as Electrical Conductors ................... 529
30.2. Conduction Mechanisms in Ceramics ................... 531
30.3. Number of Conduction Electrons ...................... 532
30.4. Electron Mobility ................................... 533
30.5. Effect of Temperature ............................... 533
30.6. Ceramics with Metal-Like Conductivity ............... 534
30.7. Applications for High-a Ceramics .................... 535
30.8. Semiconducting Ceramics ............................. 537
30.9. Examples of Extrinsic Semiconductors ................ 539
30.10.Varistors ........................................... 540
30.11.Thermistors ......................................... 541
30.12.Wide-Band-Gap Semiconductors ........................ 542
30.13.Ion Conduction ...................................... 543
30.14.Fast Ion Conductors ................................. 543
30.15.Batteries ........................................... 544
30.16.Fuel Cells .......................................... 544
30.17.Ceramic Insulators .................................. 546
30.18.Substrates and Packages for Integrated Circuits ..... 548
30.19.Insulating Layers in Integrated Circuits ............ 549
30.20.Superconductivity ................................... 550
30.21.Ceramic Superconductors ............................. 551
31. Locally Redistributing Charge ............................. 556
31.1. Background on Dielectrics ........................... 556
31.2. Ferroelectricity .................................... 560
31.3. BaTi03: The Prototypical Ferroelectric .............. 562
31.4. Solid Solutions with BaTiO3 ......................... 565
31.5. Other Ferroelectric Ceramics ........................ 565
31.6. Relaxor Dielectrics ................................. 565
31.7. Ceramic Capacitors .................................. 565
31.8. Ceramic Ferroelectrics for Memory Applications ...... 568
31.9. Piezoelectricity .................................... 569
31.10.Lead Zirconate-Lead Titanate (PZT) Solid
Solutions ........................................... 570
31.11.Applications for Piezoelectric Ceramics ............. 571
31.12.Piezoelectric Materials for Microelectromechanical
Systems ............................................. 572
31.13.Pyroelectricity ..................................... 572
31.14.Applications for Pyroelectric Ceramics .............. 573
32. Interacting with and Generating Light ..................... 575
32.1. Some Background for Optical Ceramics ................ 575
32.2. Transparency ........................................ 577
32.3. The Refractive Index ................................ 578
32.4. Reflection from Ceramic Surfaces .................... 579
32.5. Color in Ceramics ................................... 580
32.6. Coloring Glass and Glazes ........................... 581
32.7. Ceramic Pigments and Stains ......................... 581
32.8. Translucent Ceramics ................................ 583
32.9. Lamp Envelopes ...................................... 584
32.10.Fluorescence ........................................ 585
32.11.The Basics of Optical Fibers ........................ 586
32.12.Phosphors and Emitters .............................. 588
32.13.Solid-State Lasers .................................. 589
32.14.Electrooptic Ceramics for Optical Devices ........... 590
32.15.Reacting to Other Parts of the Spectrum ............. 594
32.16.Optical Ceramics in Nature .......................... 595
33. Using Magnetic Fields and Storing Data .................... 598
33.1. A Brief History of Magnetic Ceramics ................ 598
33.2. Magnetic Dipoles .................................... 599
33.3. The Basic Equations, the Words, and the Units ....... 600
33.4. The Five Classes of Magnetic Material ............... 601
33.5. Diamagnetic Ceramics ................................ 601
33.6. Superconducting Magnets ............................. 602
33.7. Paramagnetic Ceramics ............................... 603
33.8. Measuring χ ......................................... 604
33.9. Ferromagnetism ...................................... 604
33.10.Antiferromagnetism and Colossal Magnetoresistance ... 605
33.11.Ferrimagnetism ...................................... 606
33.12.Estimating the Magnetization of Ferrimagnets ........ 609
33.13.Magnetic Domains and Bloch Walls .................... 609
33.14.Imaging Magnetic Domains ............................ 610
33.15.Motion of Domain Walls and Hysteresis Loops ......... 611
33.16.Hard and Soft Ferrites .............................. 612
33.17.Microwave Ferrites .................................. 614
33.18.Data Storage and Recording .......................... 614
33.19.Magnetic Nanoparticles .............................. 616
34. Responding to Temperature Changes ......................... 619
34.1. Summary of Terms and Units .......................... 619
34.2. Absorption and Heat Capacity ........................ 619
34.3. Melting Temperatures ................................ 621
34.4. Vaporization ........................................ 623
34.5. Thermal Conductivity ................................ 624
34.6. Measuring Thermal Conductivity ...................... 626
34.7. Microstructure and Thermal Conductivity ............. 626
34.8. Using High Thermal Conductivity ..................... 628
34.9. Thermal Expansion ................................... 628
34.10.Effect of Crystal Structure on α .................... 630
34.11.Thermal Expansion Measurment ........................ 631
34.12.Importance of Matching αs ........................... 632
34.13.Applications for Low-α .............................. 632
34.14.Thermal Shock ....................................... 633
35. Ceramics in Biology and Medicine .......................... 635
35.1. What Are Bioceramics? ............................... 635
35.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ceramics ............ 636
35.3. Ceramic Implants and the Structure of Bone .......... 638
35.4. Alumina and Zirconia ................................ 639
35.5. Bioactive Glasses ................................... 640
35.6. Bioactive Glass-Ceramics ............................ 641
35.7. Hydroxy apatite ..................................... 642
35.8. Bioceramics in Composites ........................... 644
35.9. Bioceramic Coatings ................................. 645
35.10.Radiotherapy Glasses ................................ 646
35.11.Pyrolytic Carbon Heart Valves ....................... 646
35.12.Nanobioceramics ..................................... 647
35.13.Dental Ceramics ..................................... 648
35.14.Biomimetics ......................................... 648
36. Minerals and Gems ......................................... 652
36.1. Minerals ............................................ 652
36.2. What Is a Gem? ...................................... 653
36.3. In the Rough ........................................ 653
36.4. Cutting and Polishing ............................... 654
36.5. Light and Optics in Gemology ........................ 656
36.6. Color in Gems and Minerals .......................... 660
36.7. Optical Effects ..................................... 661
36.8. Identifying Minerals and Gems ....................... 663
36.9. Chemical Stability (Durability) ..................... 664
36.10.Diamonds, Sapphires, Rubies, and Emeralds ........... 664
36.11.Opal ................................................ 666
36.12.Other Gems .......................................... 667
36.13.Minerals with Inclusions ............................ 669
36.14.Treatment of Gems ................................... 670
36.15.The Mineral and Gem Trade ........................... 670
37. Industry and the Environment .............................. 675
37.1. The Beginning of the Modern Ceramics Industry ....... 675
37.2. Growth and Globalization ............................ 676
37.3. Types of Market ..................................... 677
37.4. Case Studies ........................................ 677
37.5. Emerging Areas ...................................... 680
37.6. Mining .............................................. 682
37.7. Recycling ........................................... 683
37.8. In the Nuclear Industry ............................. 685
37.9. Producing and Storing Hydrogen ...................... 685
37.10.As Green Materials .................................. 687
Index ......................................................... 691
Details for Figures and Tables ................................ 701
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