Forward
Preface
10. Plants and the Atmosphere: Physiology
Introduction .................................................... 1
Efficiencies related to photosynthesis and respiration .......... 5
Leaf anatomy .................................................... 9
Photosynthesis ................................................. 11
The flow of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis ................... 18
Respiration in plants .......................................... 21
Photosynthesis and respiration under field conditions .......... 23
Transpiration and stomatal behavior ............................ 27
Feedback loops involving stomatal control ...................... 35
The energy balance of a leaf ................................... 39
Soil conditions and physiological processes .................... 45
Plants under stress ............................................ 52
Plants and wind ................................................ 60
Box 10-1: Anatomical and physiological adaptations of
certain tropical plants ........................................ 64
Box 10-2: Basic mathematical modules for net
photosynthesis and stomatal behavior related
to light and carbon dioxide .................................... 66
Box 10-3: Experimental techniques used in quantitative
research on photosynthesis, respiration,
and transpiration .............................................. 69
Box 10-4: Modeling the energy balance of a leaf ................ 75
Box 10-5: A critical analysis of models connecting soil
moisture content and the rate of evapotranspiration ............ 89
Box 10-6: An overview of plants under environmental stress ..... 93
11. Plants and the Atmosphere: Growth and Development
Introduction ................................................... 96
Environmental optima and limits ................................ 97
Thermoperiodism ................................................ 98
The Heat Units Concept ........................................ 105
Phenology ..................................................... 108
Effects of soil moisture on plant productivity and yield ...... 113
Water use efficiency .......................................... 118
Responses of plants to aridity and drought .................... 120
Box 11-1:A theory of the heat units concept ................... 132
Box 11-2: Phenology: history, status, and problem analysis .... 135
Box 11-3: Crop modeling ....................................... 146
Box 11-4: An overview of drought .............................. 152
12. Management of Plant Microenvironments
Introduction .................................................. 159
Site selection ................................................ 162
Heat trapping ................................................. 162
Shading ....................................................... 168
Supplementary heat ............................................ 169
Reduced convection ............................................ 174
Changing soil properties ...................................... 179
Changing plant properties ..................................... 185
Irrigation: modeling and scheduling ........................... 188
Irrigation: general considerations ............................ 193
Concluding remarks ............................................ 194
13. Animals and the Atmosphere: Some Basic Principles
Introduction .................................................. 198
Atmospheric effects on animals ................................ 198
The animal life cycle ......................................... 199
Comparative biometeorology of plants and animals .............. 200
Energy controls available to animals .......................... 204
The importance of body size in animal biometeorology .......... 208
The Preferendum ............................................... 216
The cruising speed ............................................ 218
Concepts related to the use of space by animals ............... 219
Rate of development as a function of the atmospheric
environment ................................................... 221
Animal populations and the atmospheric environment ............ 222
Box 13-1: Analysis of the relationships among animal
weight, surface area, and metabolic rate ...................... 230
Box 13-2: The thermal time constant as related to responses
of animals to varying environmental temperature ............... 236
Box 13-3:Allometric scaling: an example related to the
energetics of animal movement and locomotion .................. 243
Box 13-4: An essay on animal population ecology ............... 249
14. Animals and the Atmosphere: Small Animals
including Insects
Introduction .................................................. 265
Thermal optima and limits ..................................... 266
Short-term effects: the Preferendum ........................... 271
Short-term effects: the Cruising speed ........................ 276
Long-term effects: the rates of development and survival ...... 276
Long-term effects: reproductive success ....................... 282
Enduring atmospheric adversity: migration as a defense ........ 285
Enduring atmospheric adversity: acclimation and dormancy
as a defense .................................................. 286
Enduring atmospheric adversity: polymorphism as a defense ..... 299
Enduring atmospheric adversity: theoretical considerations .... 300
Evaporative cooling and the animal energy balance ............. 301
Modeling the energy balance of a small animal ................. 302
Concluding remark ............................................. 307
Box 14-1: The Preferendum as a behavioral response to
differences in the biometeorological environment .............. 314
Box 14-2: Calculations with heat units as applied to the
phenology of an insect ........................................ 318
Box 14-3: Comments on five functional relationships in
developmental biometeorology .................................. 321
Box 14-4: Calculations with the basic model for the
energy balance of a small animal ............................. 328
Box l4-5:Climate Space ........................................ 338
15. Animals and the Atmosphere: Large Animals including Man
Introduction .................................................. 342
Atmospheric effects on the Preferendum of large animals ....... 343
The metabolic work rate and body temperature in Man ........... 346
The variable thermal conductivity of body and coat in a
large animal .................................................. 351
Evaporative cooling in a large animal ......................... 354
The structure and use of a model for the energy balance
of a large animal ............................................. 359
The areas involved in a model of the energy balance ........... 360
Mathematical modeling of the energy balance of a
large animal .................................................. 362
Effects of aging and physical condition in Man ................ 370
Concluding remarks ............................................ 371
Box 15-1: Calculations with a model for the energy
balance of a large animal ..................................... 378
Box 15-2: A note on resistance and conductance ................ 387
Box 15-3: Experimental techniques used in quantitative
research on the energy balance of an animal ................... 390
16. Man's Personal Climate: Comfort, Clothing and Housing
Introduction .................................................. 398
Human comfort: a functional overview .......................... 399
Human comfort: quantifying the comfort zone ................... 402
Quantifying human discomfort: methods and problems ............ 406
Quantifying human discomfort: equivalence and
equivalent temperatures ....................................... 413
Quantifying human discomfort: low temperatures ................ 415
Quantifying human discomfort: high temperatures ............... 418
The ultimate human discomfort: morbidity and mortality ........ 420
Mathematical modeling of the human energy balance ............. 426
Clothing, housing, and the human energy balance ............... 428
The role of clothing .......................................... 430
The role of housing ........................................... 438
Housing in extratropical climates ............................. 441
Housing in warm tropical climates ............................. 444
The energy implications of architecture ....................... 448
Concluding remarks ............................................ 454
Box 16-1: Indices of thermal comfort: types, advantages
and disadvantages ............................................. 465
Box 16-2: Wind chill and the Wind chill Equivalent
temperature ................................................... 479
Box 16-3: An experimental comparison of observations
and modeling of human comfort ................................. 485
Box 164: Heating and Cooling Degrees as climatological
indices of the demand for energy to
maintain indoor human comfort ................................. 489
17. Man's Regional Climate: Urban and Industrial Effects
Introduction .................................................. 496
Basic terminology of urban climatology ........................ 497
Establishing the existence of urban effects on climate ........ 498
Explaining urban effects on climate ........................... 512
The current status of urban climatology ....................... 528
Urbanization and the regional metabolic rate .................. 534
Human perceptions of,air pollution ............................ 542
Biometeorology for urban and regional planning ................ 547
Concluding remarks ............................................ 551
Box 17-1: Historical notes on the development of
urban climatology ............................................. 563
Box 17-2: An essay on the methodological problems of
detecting and explaining urban effects on climate ............. 566
Box 17-3:A note on the urban metabolic rate ................... 573
18. A Look Backward and a Look Forward ........................ 576
Appendices
A. Quantification of the Earth-Atmosphere Biophysical
System in Figure 10-2 ...................................... 583
B. Physical Units and Constants ............................... 586
C. A Comparison of Modules for the Convective Transfer
of Sensible Heat (H) and Latent Heat (LH) in Models
of Energy Balance .......................................... 589
D. Notes on Biometeorological Instrumentation ................. 607
E. Mathematical Proofs and Derivations ........................ 618
References .................................................... 631
Mathematical Symbols .......................................... 641
Problems ...................................................... 653
Author Index .................................................. 665
Subject Index ................................................. 670
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