Contributors ................................................... xiii Introduction .................................................... xxi Definitions ................................................... xxvii Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Acronyms, and Symbols ............ xxxix Societies and Organizations ...................................... li 1 General Considerations ......................... 1 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams ........................... 4 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols .................... 31 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance ...................... 46 1.4 System Accuracy ............................................. 78 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations .................................... 86 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices ............................. 93 1.7 Instrument Installation .................................... 100 1.8 Instrument Calibration ..................................... 108 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing ............................ 114 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems ............................... 126 1.11 Instrument Evaluation ...................................... 136 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams ...................................... 142 2 Flow Measurement ............................. 151 2.1 Application and Selection .................................. 156 2.2 Anemometers ................................................ 173 2.3 BTU Flowmeters for Heat Exchangers ......................... 177 2.4 BTU Flowmeters for Gaseous Fuels ........................... 180 2.5 Cross-Correlation Flow Metering ............................ 183 2.6 Elbow Taps ................................................. 189 2.7 Flow Switches .............................................. 193 2.8 Jet Deflection Flow Detectors .............................. 198 2.9 Laminar Flowmeters ......................................... 201 2.10 Magnetic Flowmeters ........................................ 208 2.11 Mass Flowmeters, Coriolis .................................. 225 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous .............................. 237 2.13 Mass Flowmeters—Thermal .................................... 244 2.14 Metering Pumps ............................................. 251 2.15 Orifices ................................................... 259 2.16 Pitot Tubes and Area Averaging Units ....................... 277 2.17 Polyphase (Oil/Water/Gas) Flowmeters ....................... 287 2.18 Positive-Displacement Gas Flowmeters ....................... 294 2.19 Positive-Displacement Liquid Meters and Provers ............ 299 2.20 Purge Flow Regulators ...................................... 307 2.21 Segmental Wedge Flowmeter .................................. 310 2.22 Sight Flow Indicators ...................................... 313 2.23 Solids Flowmeters and Feeders .............................. 318 2.24 Target Meters .............................................. 335 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters ................ 337 2.26 Ultrasonic Flowmeters ...................................... 357 2.27 Variable-Area, Gap, and Vane Flowmeters .................... 362 2.28 V-Cone Flowmeter ........................................... 371 2.29 Venturi Tubes, Flow Tubes, and Flow Nozzles ................ 374 2.30 Vortex and Fluidic Flowmeters .............................. 384 2.31 Weirs and Flumes ........................................... 395 3 Level Measurement ............................ 401 3.1 Application and Selection .................................. 405 3.2 Bubblers ................................................... 421 3.3 Capacitance and Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance ............ 430 3.4 Conductivity and Field-Effect Level Switches ............... 445 3.5 Diaphragm Level Detectors .................................. 449 3.6 Differential Pressure Level Detectors ...................... 454 3.7 Displacer Level Devices .................................... 465 3.8 Float Level Devices ........................................ 474 3.9 Laser Level Sensors ........................................ 482 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic ........................... 486 3.11 Microwave Level Switches ................................... 497 3.12 Optical Level Devices ...................................... 500 3.13 Radar, Noncontacting Level Sensors ......................... 504 3.14 Radar, Contact Level Sensors (TDR, GWR, PDS) ............... 508 3.15 Radiation Level Sensors .................................... 514 3.16 Resistance Tapes ........................................... 526 3.17 Rotating Paddle Switches ................................... 530 3.18 Tank Gauges Including Float-Type Tape Gauges ............... 533 3.19 Thermal Level Sensors ...................................... 544 3.20 Ultrasonic Level Detectors ................................. 548 3.21 Vibrating Level Switches ................................... 556 4 Temperature Measurement ...................... 561 4.1 Application and Selection .................................. 565 4.2 Bimetallic Thermometers .................................... 590 4.3 Calibrators and Simulators ................................. 594 4.4 Cones, Crayons, Labels, Paints, and Pellets ................ 599 4.5 Fiber-Optic Thermometers ................................... 604 4.6 Filled-Bulb and Glass-Stem Thermometers .................... 610 4.7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors and Diodes ................ 620 4.8 Miscellaneous and Discontinued Sensors ..................... 623 4.9 Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers .......................... 630 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors ........................... 645 4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats ....................... 657 4.12 Thermistors ................................................ 666 4.13 Thermocouples .............................................. 673 4.14 Thermowells ................................................ 697 4.15 Ultrasonic and Sonic Thermometers .......................... 705 5 Pressure Measurement ......................... 709 5.1 Selection and Application .................................. 712 5.2 Accessories (Seals, Snubbers, Calibrators, Manifolds) ...... 718 5.3 Bellows-Type Pressure Sensors .............................. 726 5.4 Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors ....................... 731 5.5 Diaphragm or Capsule-Type Sensors .......................... 736 5.6 Differential Pressure Instruments .......................... 743 5.7 Electronic Pressure Sensors ................................ 751 5.8 High-Pressure Sensors ...................................... 762 5.9 Manometers ................................................. 766 5.10 Multiple Pressure Scanners ................................. 774 5.11 Pressure Gauges ............................................ 779 5.12 Pressure Repeaters ......................................... 785 5.13 Pressure and Differential Pressure Switches ................ 790 5.14 Vacuum Sensors ............................................. 795 6 Density Measurement .......................... 807 6.1 Density: Applications and Selection ........................ 809 6.2 Displacement- and Float-Type Densitometers ................. 816 6.3 Hydrometers ................................................ 823 6.4 Hydrostatic Densitometers .................................. 826 6.5 Oscillating Coriolis Densitometer (Gas, Liquid, and Slurry Services) ......................... 831 6.6 Radiation Densitometers .................................... 836 6.7 Ultrasonic Sludge and Slurry Densitometers ................. 841 6.8 Liquid/Slurry/Gas Density—Vibrating Densitometers .......... 844 6.9 Weight-Based and Miscellaneous Densitometers ............... 852 6.10 Gas Densitometers .......................................... 857 7 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors ............. 865 7.1 Boroscopes ................................................. 872 7.2 Electrical and Intrinsic Safety ............................ 875 7.3 Electrical Meters and Sensors .............................. 889 7.4 Energy Management Devices (Peak Load Shedding) ............. 903 7.5 Excess Flow and Regular Check Valves ....................... 908 7.6 Explosion Suppression and Deluge Systems ................... 912 7.7 Flame Arresters, Conservation Vents, and Emergency Vents ... 920 7.8 Flame, Fire, and Smoke Detectors ........................... 928 7.9 Leak Detectors ............................................. 936 7.10 Linear and Angular Position Detection ...................... 944 7.11 Machine Vision Technology .................................. 951 7.12 Metal Detectors ............................................ 955 7.13 Noise Sensors .............................................. 958 7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches ....................... 964 7.15 Relief Valves—Determination of Required Capacity ........... 973 7.16 Relief Valves—Sizing, Specification, and Installation ...... 991 7.17 Rupture Discs ............................................. 1018 7.18 Soft Sensors .............................................. 1030 7.19 Tachometers and Angular Speed Detectors ................... 1038 7.20 Thickness and Dimension Measurement ....................... 1045 7.21 Torque and Force Transducers .............................. 1051 7.22 Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration ........................ 1061 7.23 Weather Stations .......................................... 1077 7.24 Weighing Systems: General Considerations .................. 1084 7.25 Weight Sensors ............................................ 1101 8 Analytical Instrumentation .................. 1127 8.1 Analyzer Application and Selection ........................ 1144 8.2 Analyzer Sampling: Process Samples ........................ 1170 8.3 Analyzer Sampling: Stack Particulates ..................... 1189 8.4 Analyzers Operating on Electrochemical Principles ......... 1198 8.5 Air Quality Monitoring .................................... 1207 8.6 Biometers ................................................. 1222 8.7 Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Total Oxygen Demand ................................... 1224 8.8 Calorimeters .............................................. 1235 8.9 Carbon Dioxide ............................................ 1242 8.10 Carbon Monoxide ........................................... 1245 8.11 Chlorine .................................................. 1251 8.12 Chromatographs: Gas ....................................... 1258 8.13 Chromatographs: Liquid .................................... 1289 8.14 Coal Analyzers ............................................ 1295 8.15 Colorimeters .............................................. 1299 8.16 Combustibles .............................................. 1304 8.17 Conductivity Analyzers .................................... 1316 8.18 Consistency Analyzers ..................................... 1323 8.19 Corrosion Monitoring ...................................... 1329 8.20 Differential Vapor Pressure Sensor ........................ 1335 8.21 Dioxin Analysis ........................................... 1339 8.22 Elemental Monitors ........................................ 1342 8.23 Fiber-Optic Probes ........................................ 1347 8.24 Fluoride Analyzers ........................................ 1353 8.25 Hydrocarbon Analyzers ..................................... 1358 8.26 Hydrogen Sulfide .......................................... 1364 8.27 Infrared and Near-Infrared Analyzers ...................... 1369 8.28 Ion-Selective Electrodes .................................. 1388 8.29 Mass Spectrometers ........................................ 1399 8.30 Mercury in Ambient Air .................................... 1407 8.31 Mercury in Water .......................................... 1413 8.32 Moisture in Air: Humidity and Dew Point ................... 1420 8.33 Moisture in Gases and Liquids ............................. 1434 8.34 Moisture in Solids ........................................ 1450 8.35 Molecular Weight .......................................... 1457 8.36 Nitrate, Ammonia, and Total Nitrogen ...................... 1469 8.37 Nitrogen Oxide Analyzers .................................. 1474 8.38 Odor Detection ............................................ 1480 8.39 Oil in or on Water ........................................ 1486 8.40 Open Path Spectrophotometry (UV, IR, FT-IR) ............... 1493 8.41 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) ....................... 1506 8.42 Oxygen in Gases ........................................... 1514 8.43 Oxygen in Liquids (Dissolved Oxygen) ...................... 1526 8.44 Ozone in Gas .............................................. 1536 8.45 Ozone in Water ............................................ 1540 8.46 Particulates, Opacity, Dust, and Smoke .................... 1544 8.47 Particle Size and Distribution Monitors ................... 1559 8.48 pH Measurement ............................................ 1565 8.49 Phosphorus Analyzer ....................................... 1585 8.50 Physical Properties Analyzers—ASTM Methods ................ 1589 8.51 Raman Analyzers ........................................... 1606 8.52 Refractometers ............................................ 1620 8.53 Rheometers ................................................ 1628 8.54 Streaming Current or Particle Charge Analyzer ............. 1637 8.55 Sulfur-in-Oil Analyzers ................................... 1641 8.56 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers .................................... 1646 8.57 Thermal Conductivity Detectors ............................ 1653 8.58 Total Carbon Analyzers .................................... 1658 8.59 Toxic Gas Monitoring ...................................... 1666 8.60 Turbidity, Sludge, and Suspended Solids ................... 1680 8.61 Ultraviolet and Visible Analyzers ......................... 1687 8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection ..................... 1700 8.63 Viscometers—Laboratory .................................... 1708 8.64 Viscometers—Industrial .................................... 1723 8.65 Water Quality Monitoring .................................. 1744 8.66 Wet Chemistry and Autotitrator Analyzers .................. 1755 Appendix ...................................... 1765 A.1 International System of Units ............................. 1767 A.2 Engineering Conversion Factors ............................ 1777 A.3 Chemical Resistance of Materials .......................... 1799 A.4 Composition of Metallic and Other Materials ............... 1806 A.5 Steam and Water Tables .................................... 1809 A.6 Friction Loss in Pipes .................................... 1817 A.7 Tank Volumes .............................................. 1821 A.8 Directory of "Lost" Companies ............................. 1824 Index ......................................... 1829