Preface ............................................................. v 1. Introduction ..................................................... 1 2. Refractive Elements ............................................. 11 2.1. Optics Review ................................................. 11 2.2. Fabrication Methods ........................................... 22 2.3. Comparison and Analysis ....................................... 47 Appendix A. Lenses Derived from Surface Tension .................... 56 Appendix B. Ray-Trace Algorithm .................................... 61 3. Gradient Index .................................................. 69 3.1. Introduction .................................................. 69 3.2. Optical Theory ................................................ 70 3.3. Planar Lens ................................................... 79 3.4. Methods of Fabrication ........................................ 85 3.5. Analysis and Comparison ...................................... 116 4. Diffractive Element Lenses ..................................... 129 4.1. Diffraction Theory Review .................................... 129 4.2. Methods of Fabrication ....................................... 140 4.3. Analysis ..................................................... 155 5. Erect One-to-One Imaging ....................................... 165 5.1. Introduction ................................................. 165 5.2. Optics of One-to-One Erect Imaging ........................... 168 5.3. Device Applications .......................................... 175 5.4. Resolution/Contrast .......................................... 179 5.5. Radiometry ................................................... 188 5.6. Further Aspects of Fabrication ............................... 198 6. Two-Dimensional Arrays ......................................... 203 6.1. Introduction ................................................. 203 6.2. Applications ................................................. 204 6.3. Two-Dimensional Arrays ....................................... 227 Appendix A. Gaussian Beam Imaging ................................. 249 7. Gratings ....................................................... 257 7.1. Introduction ................................................. 257 7.2. Types of Diffraction Gratings ................................ 259 7.3. Fabrication of Microgratings ................................. 265 7.4. Applications ................................................. 295 Appendix A. "Derivation of Kramers-Kronig Relation" ............... 308 8. Optical Isolators .............................................. 317 8.1. Background ................................................... 317 8.2. Polarizers ................................................... 321 8.3. Waveplates ................................................... 334 8.4. Beam Separators .............................................. 337 8.5. Faraday Effect ............................................... 342 8.6. Actual Optical Isolator Structures ........................... 349 Appendix A. Jones Matrix .......................................... 360 9. Photonic Crystals .............................................. 365 9.1. Background and Introduction .................................. 365 9.2. Frequency vs. k Diagrams ..................................... 371 9.3. Structures ................................................... 375 9.4. Photonic Crystal Fibers ...................................... 381 9.5. Fabrication Techniques ....................................... 398 9.6. Applications ................................................. 407 9.7. Optical Fibers ............................................... 416 Appendix A. Mathematical Framework ................................ 432 10. Femtosecond-Laser Interaction in Glasses ...................... 439 10.1. Introduction ................................................ 439 10.2. General Theory of Optical Damage in Solids .................. 441 10.3. Ultra-short Laser Pulse Ablation ............................ 443 10.4. Induced Refractive Index .................................... 450 10.5. Physical Mechanism for Index Change ......................... 454 10.6. Device Applications ......................................... 461 10.7. Interaction with Crystals ................................... 476 Appendix A. ....................................................... 478 11. Negative Refractive Index Materials ........................... 489 11.1. Background .................................................. 489 11.2. Effect of Magnetic Permeability ............................. 492 11.3. Negative Refractive Index ................................... 492 11.4. Negative Index Materials .................................... 494 11.5. Methods of Producing Negative Refractive Index Behavior ..... 497 11.6. Applications ................................................ 507 Appendix A. Negative Effective Refractive Index ................... 518 Index ............................................................. 523