List of illustrations ......................................... XVI
Foreword .................................................... XVIII
Translators 'preface and acknowledgements ...................... XX
Conventions used in this book ................................ XXII
Abbreviations ................................................. XXV
Introduction .................................................... 1
0.1 What is Chinese grammar? ................................... 1
0.1.1 Syllabic entities: Grammatical elements ............. 1
0.1.2 Non-syllabic entity: Mood ........................... 1
0.2 Studies of Chinese grammar since Ma's Comprehensive
Grammar .................................................... 2
0.3 Towards a system of Chinese grammar ........................ 4
0.4 A review of different grammatical theories ................. 5
0.4.1 The word-based theory ............................... 5
0.4.2 The sentence-based theory and the phrase-based
theory .............................................. 6
0.4.3 The character-based theory and the mood-based
theory .............................................. 7
0.5 Organisation of the book 8 Further readings ............... 10
PART I The clause ............................................. 13
1 The clause as the pivot in Chinese grammar ................ 15
1.1 Definition of clause ...................................... 15
1.1.1 Definition ......................................... 15
1.1.2 Some clarifications ................................ 18
1.2 The pivotal (zhцngshь) Status of the clause ............... 18
1.2.1 Components of the clause ........................... 19
1.2.2 Its relation to other grammatical entities ......... 19
1.2.3 Its constraining and governing effects on other
grammatical units .................................. 20
Further readings .......................................... 27
2 The principles of clause formation, inclusion, and
conjoining ................................................ 29
2.1 Principles of clause formation ............................ 29
2.1.1 Clause formation principle 1 ....................... 29
2.1.2 Clause formation principle 2 ....................... 32
2.2 Principles of clause inclusion ............................ 36
2.2.1 Clause inclusion principle 1 ....................... 37
2.2.2 Clause inclusion principle 2 ....................... 41
2.3 Principles of clause conjoining ........................... 47
2.3.1 Clause conjoining principle 1: Complex sentences ... 47
2.3.2 Clause conjoining principle 2: Sentence groups ..... 48
Further readings .......................................... 51
3 Functional assignment, nucleus, and clause patterns ......... 53
3.1 Functional assignment ..................................... 53
3.1.1 Pairing ............................................ 53
3.1.2 Stratification ..................................... 54
3.1.3 Interjoining ....................................... 55
3.1.4 Interchangeability ................................. 56
3.2 Nucleus and pattern ....................................... 59
3.2.1 Nucleus ............................................ 60
3.2.2 Clause pattern ..................................... 61
Further readings .......................................... 76
4 Subject-predicate and predicator-object ................... 78
4.1 Subject-predicate assignment .............................. 78
4.1.1 Subj ect and predicate ............................. 78
4.1.2 Semantic types of the subject ...................... 79
4.1.3 Issues about subject-predicate assignment .......... 82
4.2 Predicator-object assignment .............................. 91
4.2.1 Predicator and object .............................. 91
4.2.2 Semantic types of the object ....................... 93
4.2.3 Typical and atypical objects ....................... 99
4.2.4 The integrating power of the predicator-object
pattern ........................................... 106
4.2.5 Single object and double object ................... 107
Further readings .................................. 110
5 Attribute-head, adverbial-head, and head-complement ...... 112
5.1 Attribute-head assignment ................................ 112
5.1.1 The attributive head .............................. 112
5.1.2 The attribute and its marker ...................... 113
5.1.3 The different types of attributes ................. 114
5.1.4 The sequence of different types of attributes ..... 123
5.1.5 The attribute and other syntactic functions ....... 127
5.1.6 Variation on the position of the attribute and
the head .......................................... 128
5.2 Adverbial-head assignment ................................ 130
5.2.1 The adverbial head ................................ 130
5.2.2 The adverbial and its marker ...................... 131
5.2.3 The different types of adverbials ................. 132
5.2.4 The sequence of different types of adverbials ..... 139
5.2.5 The adverbial and other syntactic functions ....... 141
5.2.6 Variation on the position of the adverbial and
its head .......................................... 143
5.3 Head-complement assignment ............................... 144
5.3.1 The head and its complement ....................... 144
5.3.2 The complement and its marker ..................... 145
5.3.3 The different types of complements ................ 146
5.3.4 Complement and object ............................. 158
5.3.5 The complement and other syntactic functions ...... 161
Further readings .................................. 163
6 Clause-specific features ................................. 165
6.1 Structural types and mood types .......................... 165
6.1.1 Structural types .................................. 165
6.1.2 Mood types ........................................ 168
6.2 Elements other than the pairing ones ..................... 178
6.2.1 Absolute elements ................................. 178
6.2.2 Extraposed elements ............................... 180
6.2.3 Auxiliary elements ................................ 182
6.3 Special syntactic patterns ............................... 183
6.3.1 The existential clause ............................ 183
6.3.2 The serial-verb clause ............................ 188
6.3.3 The pivotal clause ................................ 191
6.3.4 The bâ-clause ..................................... 197
6.3.5 The bèi-clause .................................... 200
Further readings ......................................... 204
PART II Clause constituents
7 Introduction of constituent units ........................ 209
7.1 Ranks of the constituent units ........................... 209
7.1.1 Words ............................................. 209
7.1.2 Phrases ........................................... 210
7.2 Words as building blocks and phrases as immediate
constituents ............................................. 212
7.2.1 Words as building blocks .......................... 213
7.2.2 Phrases as immediate constituents ................. 213
Further readings .................................. 215
8 Constituent words ........................................ 216
8.1 Nouns .................................................... 216
8.1.1 Grammatical features of nouns ..................... 216
8.1.2 Different types of nouns .......................... 217
8.1.3 Nouns as clause constituents ...................... 222
8.1.4 Semantic constraints on the syntax of nouns ....... 225
8.2 Verbs .................................................... 227
8.2.1 Grammatical features of verbs ..................... 227
8.2.2 Different types of verbs .......................... 229
8.2.3 Verbs as clause constituents ...................... 235
8.2.4 Semantic constraints on the syntax of verbs ....... 238
8.3 Adjectives ............................................... 241
8.3.1 Grammatical features of adjectives ................ 241
8.3.2 Different types of adjectives ..................... 244
8.3.3 Adjectives as clause constituents ................. 245
8.3.4 Semantic constraints on the syntax of adjectives .. 247
8.4 Adverbs .................................................. 248
8.4.1 Grammatical features of adverbs ................... 248
8.4.2 Different types of adverbs ........................ 251
8.4.3 Semantic constraints on the syntax of adverbs ..... 253
Further readings ......................................... 256
9 Special constituent words ................................ 259
9.1 Numerals and classifiers ................................. 259
9.1.1 Numerals .......................................... 259
9.1.2 Classifiers ....................................... 265
9.1.3 Numeral-classifiers ............................... 274
9.2 Pronouns ................................................. 278
9.2.1 Dependency and indeteiminacy of pronouns .......... 278
9.2.2 Basic information about pronouns .................. 279
9.2.3 Flexible uses of pronouns ......................... 282
9.2.4 Miscellaneous pronouns ............................ 288
9.3 Echoic words ............................................. 289
9.3.1 Features of echoic words .......................... 289
9.3.2 Interjections and onomatopoeias ................... 290
Further readings .................................. 292
10 Non-constituent words .................................... 293
10.1 Prepositions ............................................. 293
10.1.1 Grammatical features of prepositions .............. 294
10.1.2 Classification of prepositions .................... 295
10.1.3 Prepositions and verbs ............................ 302
10.1.4 Bound usage of prepositions ....................... 305
10.2 Conjunctions ............................................. 308
10.2.1 Grammatical features of conjunctions .............. 308
10.2.2 Classification of conjunctions .................... 310
10.2.3 Conjunctions and adverbs .......................... 312
10.2.4 Conjunctions and prepositions ..................... 314
10.3 Particles ................................................ 315
10.3.1 Grammatical features of particles ................. 315
10.3.2 The five types of particles ....................... 319
Further readings ......................................... 340
11 Phrases .................................................. 341
11.1 Classifications of phrases ............................... 341
11.1.1 Constituent and non-constituent phrases ........... 341
11.1.2 Relational phrases and phrases of special
constructions ..................................... 341
11.1.3 Nominal, verbal, and adjectival phrases ........... 343
11.2 Pairing phrases .......................................... 344
11.2.1 Subject-predicate phrases ......................... 344
11.2.2 Predicator-object phrases ......................... 348
11.2.3 Attribute-head phrases ............................ 350
11.2.4 Adverbial-head and head-complement phrases ........ 357
11.3 Sequential relational phrases ............................ 362
11.3.1 Coordinate phrases ................................ 362
11.3.2 Appositive phrases ................................ 368
11.3.3 Serial-verb and pivotal phrases ................... 371
Further readings ......................................... 374
12 Problems in word-class identification .................... 376
12.1 Grammatical features of words ............................ 376
12.1.1 Grammatical features as the basis of word-class
identification .................................... 376
12.1.2 Lexical meanings as a reference for grammatical
features .......................................... 381
12.1.3 Non-neatness of grammatical features .............. 382
12.2 Reasoning methods in word-class identification ........... 387
12.2.1 The three reasoning methods ....................... 387
12.2.2 Discussion of the three reasoning methods ......... 389
12.3 Multi-class forms ........................................ 395
12.3.1 Definition ........................................ 395
12.3.2 Identifying the class membership of multi-class
forms ............................................. 398
12.4 The crux of the problems and the solutions ............... 403
12.4.1 The crux of the problems .......................... 403
12.4.2 Solutions ......................................... 404
Further readings ......................................... 406
PART III Clause conjoining ................................... 409
13 Formation of complex sentences
13.1 Complex sentences and clauses ............................ 411
13.1.1 Components of complex sentences ................... 411
13.1.2 Clauses in complex sentences ...................... 412
13.2 Hierarchical conjoining and contracted conjoining ........ 414
13.2.1 Complex sentences of more than one layer .......... 414
13.2.2 Contracted sentences .............................. 417
13.3 Homogeneous conjoining and heterogeneous conjoining ...... 420
13.3.1 Homogeneous conjoining ............................ 420
13.3.2 Heterogeneous conjoining .......................... 421
Further readings ......................................... 430
14 Connectives in complex sentences ......................... 432
14.1 Features and classification of connectives ............... 432
14.1.1 Features of connectives ........................... 432
14.1.2 Classification of connectives ..................... 433
14.2 Functions of connectives ................................. 434
14.2.1 Stative and dynamic functions ..................... 434
14.2.2 Explication, conversion, and combination .......... 435
Further readings .................................. 448
15 Inter-clausal relations and patterns of complex
sentences ................................................ 449
15.1 Causal complex sentences ................................. 449
15.1.1 Causal relation in the broad sense ................ 449
15.1.2 The cause-effect pattern .......................... 450
15.1.3 The inferential pattern ........................... 454
15.1.4 The hypothetical pattern .......................... 457
15.1.5 The conditional pattern ........................... 459
15.1.6 The purposive pattern ............................. 464
15.2 Coordinate complex sentences ............................. 466
15.2.1 Coordination in the broad sense ................... 466
15.2.2 The juxtapositional pattern ....................... 467
15.2.3 The chronological pattern ......................... 470
15.2.4 The progressive pattern ........................... 471
15.2.5 The alternative pattern ........................... 473
15.3 Adversative complex sentences ............................ 475
15.3.1 Adversative relation in the broad sense ........... 475
15.3.2 The abrupt-adversative pattern .................... 476
15.3.3 The concessive-adversative pattern ................ 476
15.3.4 The negative-adversative pattern .................. 480
15.4 Constructional counter-effects upon semantic
relations ................................................ 481
15.4.1 Semantic relations and constructions of complex
sentences ......................................... 481
15.4.2 Real vs. unreal ................................... 481
15.4.3 Causal/coordinate vs. adversative ................. 487
15.4.4 Double perspective ................................ 491
Further readings ......................................... 493
16 Diversity of complex sentence patterns ................... 495
16.1 Diversity of semantic relations .......................... 495
16.1.1 shàngqiě A, hékuáng В ............................. 495
16.1.2 уué А, уué В ...................................... 497
16.2 Variation on specific patterns ........................... 499
16.2.1 Variations on the gèng-constraction ............... 499
16.2.2 Variations on the yī A, jiù В
('once ... then ...') construction ................ 505
16.3 Diversity of the co-occurrence of connectives ............ 511
16.3.1 Co-occurrence of connectives across the major
categories ........................................ 511
16.3.2 Co-occurrence of connectives across
subcategories ..................................... 516
Further readings ......................................... 517
17 Sentence groups .......................................... 519
17.1 Features, formation, and semantics of sentence groups .... 519
17.1.1 Features of sentence groups ....................... 519
17.1.2 Formation of sentence groups ...................... 521
17.1.3 Semantics of sentence groups ...................... 524
17.2 The Alternative Interrogative (AI) sentence group:
A case study ............................................. 530
17.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 530
17.2.2 (l)-ma? (2)-ma? ................................... 531
17.2.3 (l)-ma? (2)-ne? ................................... 532
17.2.4 (l)-ne? (2)-ne? ................................... 533
17.2.5 (l)-ne? (2)-ma? ................................... 535
17.2.6 AI sentence groups introduced by specific
interrogatives .................................... 537
17.2.7 Implications of studies on sentence groups ........ 540
Further readings ......................................... 545
18 Complex sentences and related issues ..................... 547
18.1 The distinction between complex sentences and sentence
groups ................................................... 547
18.1.1 Punctuation marks in conjunction with pattern
constraints ....................................... 547
18.1.2 Punctuation marks ................................. 548
18.1.3 Distinguishing simple sentences and complex
sentences ......................................... 551
18.2 Classification of complex sentences ...................... 562
18.2.1 Principles of classification of complex
sentences ......................................... 562
18.2.2 Classification of the major types of complex
sentences ......................................... 565
Further readings ......................................... 569
PART IV. Methodology .......................................... 571
19 Methodology: The minor triangle .......................... 573
19.1 'Minor triangle'in the double-triangle approach .......... 573
19.1.1 The form angle .................................... 573
19.1.2 The meaning angle ................................. 575
19.1.3 The value angle ................................... 576
79.2 The use of the 'minor triangle' .......................... 578
19.2.1 Investigation into form and meaning ............... 578
19.2.2 Investigation into value .......................... 585
19.3 The paradigm of the 'minor triangle' ..................... 591
Further readings ......................................... 592
20 Methodology: The major triangle .......................... 595
20.1 Introduction to the major triangle ....................... 595
20.1.1 The Putonghua angle ............................... 595
20.1.2 The dialect angle ................................. 595
20.1.3 The Old Chinese angle ............................. 596
20.2 The use of the 'major triangle' .......................... 597
20.2.1 Studying Putonghua through dialects ............... 597
20.2.2 Studying Modem Chinese through Old Chinese ........ 599
20.3 Combining the two triangles .............................. 602
20.3.1 Flexibility of multi-angle investigations ......... 603
20.3.2 Combination of the two triangles .................. 603
Further readings ......................................... 610
21 Methodology: The three adequacies in grammatical
studies .................................................. 611
21.1 Observational adequacy ................................... 611
21.2 Descriptive adequacy ..................................... 615
21.3 Explanatory adequacy ..................................... 621
21.4 The relation between the double triangle and the three
adequacies ............................................... 625
Further readings ......................................... 628
Index ......................................................... 629
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