Preface ...................................................... xiii
Contributors ................................................. xvii
Chapter 1. Chemicals, Models, and GIS: Introduction ............. 1
1-1 Chemistry, Modeling, and Geography ......................... 1
1-2 Mr. Palomar and Models ..................................... 2
1-3 What Makes a Model Different? .............................. 4
1-4 Simple, Complex, or Tiered? ................................ 7
Compatibility of Emissions and Concentrations .............. 9
Spatiotemporal Variability ................................ 10
Spatial Patterns .......................................... 12
More Complex Models and the Tale of Horatii and Curiatii .. 15
1-5 For Whom is this Book Written? ............................ 17
References ................................................ 19
Chapter 2. Basics of Chemical Compartment Models and Their
Implementation with GIS Functions .............................. 23
2-1 Introduction .............................................. 23
2-2 Phase Partitioning ........................................ 24
Air Compartment ........................................... 24
Surface Water Compartment ................................. 25
Soil Compartment .......................................... 25
2-3 Diffusion, Dispersion, and Advection ...................... 26
2-4 Fluxes at the Interfaces .................................. 28
Air-Ground Surface Interface .............................. 28
Water-Air and Water-Bottom Sediment Interface ............. 28
Soil-Air and Soil-Water Interface ......................... 29
Parameterization of Advection Velocities and Diffusion/
Dispersion Rates .......................................... 29
2-5 Reactions ................................................. 32
2-6 Transport Within an Environmental Medium: The Advection-
Diffusion Equation (ADE) .................................. 33
Soils ..................................................... 37
Surface Water 38 Atmosphere ............................... 39
2-7 Analytical Solutions ...................................... 40
Example: The Domenico Model ........................ 40
Example: Implementation of a River Plug Flow
Model in a Spreadsheet .................................... 45
2-8 Box Models, Multimedia and Multispecies Fate and
Transport ................................................. 47
Example: Implementing a Box Model of Soil Contamination
and Water Pollution Loading in a Spreadsheet .............. 51
2-9 Spatial Models: Implicit, Explicit, Detailed Explicit,
and GIS-Based Schemes ..................................... 57
References ................................................ 65
Chapter 3. Basics of GIS Operations ............................ 71
3-1 What is GIS? .............................................. 71
3-2 GIS Data .................................................. 72
Coordinate Systems ........................................ 72
Example: Coordinate Transformation ........................ 75
Example: Georeference a Map from a Paper Using ArcGIS ..... 77
GIS Formats ............................................... 81
3-3 GIS Software .............................................. 92
3-4 GIS Standards ............................................. 93
Exercise: Browse and Export Geographic Objects in KML
and Combine Them with Layers from a WMS ................... 94
3-5 A Classification of GIS Operations for Chemical Fate
Modeling .................................................. 99
3-6 Spatial Thinking ......................................... 100
3-7 Beyond GIS ............................................... 103
3-8 Further Progress on GIS .................................. 104
References ............................................... 104
Chapter 4. Map Algebra ........................................ 107
4-1 Map Algebra Operators and Syntaxes ....................... 109
4-2 Using Map Algebra to Compute a Gaussian Plume ............ 112
Example: Using Map Algebra to Compute Volatilization
Rates from Water Bodies .................................. 119
4-3 Using Map Algebra to Implement Isolated Box Models ....... 121
References ............................................... 124
Chapter 5. Distance Calculations .............................. 127
5-1 Concepts of Distance Calculations ........................ 127
Example: Feature Buffering ............................... 127
Example: Join Based on Distance .......................... 129
5-2 Distance Along a Surface and Vertical Distance ........... 134
5-3 Applications of Euclidean Distance in Pollution
Problems ................................................. 135
5-4 Cost Distance ............................................ 139
Exercise: Euclidean and Cost distance Calculations ....... 140
References ............................................... 148
Chapter 6. Spatial Statistics and Neighborhood Modeling in
GIS ........................................................... 149
6-1 Variograms: Analyzing Spatial Patterns ................... 149
Exercise: Computing Variograms of Observed Atmospheric
Contaminants ............................................. 154
6-2 Interpolation ............................................ 160
6-3 Zonal Statistics ......................................... 163
6-4 Neighborhood Statistics and Filters ...................... 164
Exercise: Creating a Population Map from Point and
Polygon Data ............................................. 169
References ............................................... 170
Chapter 7. I Digital Elevation Models, Topographic Controls,
and Hydrologic Modeling in GIS ................................ 171
7-1 Basic Surface Analysis ................................... 171
7-2 Drainage ................................................. 178
Example: Pit Filling, Flow Direction, Flow Accumulation,
and Flow Length in ArcGIS ................................ 178
Example: Catchment Population in India ................... 183
Example: Travel Time ..................................... 185
7-3 Using GIS Hydrological Functions in Chemical Fate
and Transport Modeling ................................... 187
7-4 Non-D8 Methods and the TauDEM Algorithms ................. 190
7-5 ESRI's "Darcy Flow" and "Porous Puff" Functions .......... 191
References ............................................... 193
Chapter 8. Elements of Dynamic Modeling in GIS ................ 195
8-1 Dynamic G/S Models ....................................... 195
8-2 Studying Time-Dependent Effects With Simple Map Algebra .. 200
Intermittent Emissions ................................... 200
Lagged Release from Historical Stockpiles ................ 201
Stepwise Constant Emission and Removal Processes ......... 202
8-3 Decoupling Spatial and Temporal Aspects of Models:
The Mappe Global Approach ................................ 203
References ............................................... 206
Chapter 9. Metamodeling and Source-Receptor Relationship
Modeling in GIS ............................................... 209
9-1 Introduction ............................................. 209
9-2 Metamodeling ............................................. 210
9-3 Source-Receptor Relationships ............................ 213
References ............................................... 215
Chapter 10. Spatial Data Management in GIS and the Coupling
of GIS and Environmental Models
10-1 Introduction ............................................. 217
10-2 Historical Perspective of Emergence of Spatial
Databases in Environmental Domain ........................ 218
10-3 Spatial Data Management in GIS: Theory and History ....... 221
Spatial Database Definition .............................. 221
Relational Data Model Foundations ........................ 221
Object Relational Concepts: A Foundation Model for
Spatial Databases—Theoretical Background ................. 224
Postgre SQL/Post GIS Object Relational Support ........... 225
Oracle Object Relational Support ......................... 225
10-4 Spatial Database Solutions ............................... 226
ESRI Geodatabase ......................................... 226
PostgreSQL and PostGIS ................................... 229
Oracle Locator and Spatial ............................... 230
10-5 Simple Environmental Spatiotemporal Database Skeleton
and GIS: Hands-On Examples ........................ 230
Simple PostgreSQL/ PostGIS Environmental Spatiotemporal
Database Skeleton and QuantumGIS ......................... 231
Simple Oracle XE Environmental Spatiotemporal Database
Skeleton ................................................. 237
10-6 Generalized Environmental Spatiotemporal Database
Skeleton and Geographic Mashups .......................... 244
Spatiotemporal Database Skeleton ......................... 244
Geographic Mashup ........................................ 246
References ............................................... 249
Chapter 11. Soft Computing Methods for the Overlaying of
Chemical Data with Other Spatially Varying Parameters ......... 253
11-1 Introduction ............................................. 253
11-2 Fuzzy Logic and Expert Judgment .......................... 258
11-3 Spatial Multicriteria Analysis ........................... 262
11-4 An Example of Vulnerability Mapping of Water Resources
to Pollution ............................................. 266
References ............................................... 276
Chapter 12. Types of Data Required for Chemical Fate
Modeling ...................................................... 279
12-1 Climate and Atmospheric Data ............................. 280
12-2 Soil Data ................................................ 286
12-3 Impervious Surface Area .................................. 289
12-4 Vegetation ............................................... 289
12-5 Hydrological Data ........................................ 291
12-6 Elevation Data ........................................... 293
12-7 Hydrography .............................................. 296
12-8 Lakes .................................................... 298
12-9 Stream Network Hydraulic Data ............................ 298
12-10 Ocean Parameters ........................................ 299
12-11 Human Activity .......................................... 301
Land Use/Land Cover ...................................... 303
Population ............................................... 305
Stable Lights at Night ................................... 306
12-12 Using Satellite Images for the Extraction
of Environmental Parameters .............................. 306
12-13 Compilations of Data for Chemical Fate and Transport
Modeling ................................................. 307
References ............................................... 307
Chapter 13. Retrieval and Analysis of Emission Data ........... 311
13-1 Characterization of Emissions ............................ 311
13-2 Emissions based on Production Volumes .................... 312
13-3 Estimation from Usage or Release Inventories ............. 313
13-4 Emission Factors ......................................... 313
13-5 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Emissions ........... 314
Diffuse Emissions at Local to Regional Scale ............. 317
Example: Estimating Urban Runoff Contaminants from Land
Use and Population Data in the Province of Naples,
Italy .................................................... 318
Exercise: Apportionment of Emissions Using a Geographic
Pattern .................................................. 318
13-6 Modeling Traffic Flows ................................... 322
References ............................................... 326
Chapter 14. Characterization of Environmental Properties and
Processes ..................................................... 329
14-1 Physicochemical Properties and Partition Coefficients .... 329
14-2 Aerosol and Suspended Sediments .......................... 330
Exercise: Computing SPM in Rivers Using the Formula of
Hakanson and Co-workers .................................. 332
14-3 Diffusive Processes ...................................... 335
14-4 Dispersion ............................................... 335
14-5 Advective Processes ...................................... 336
Atmospheric Deposition ................................... 336
Soil Water Budget Calculations ........................... 338
Soil Erosion ............................................. 344
14-6 River and Lal e Hydraulic Geometry ....................... 344
References ............................................... 350
Chapter 15. Complex Models, GIS, and Data Assimilation ........ 353
15-1 Atmospheric Transport Models ............................. 353
Example: Dispersion Modeling of an Atmospheric Emission
in Australia ............................................. 354
15-2 Transport in Groundwater and the Analytic Element
Method ................................................... 361
15-3 GIS Functions of Modeling Systems and Data Assimilation .. 361
References ............................................... 363
Chapter 16. The Issue of Monitoring Data and the Evaluation
of Spatial Models of Chemical Fate ............................ 365
16-1 Existing Monitoring Programs ............................. 366
16-2 Distributed Sampling ..................................... 366
16-3 Methods for the Comparison of Measured and Modeled
Concentrations ........................................... 367
Exercise: Comparison of Two PCB Soil Concentration
Models ................................................... 368
References ............................................... 375
Chapter 17. From Fate to Exposure and Risk Modeling with GIS .. 377
17-1 Exposure and Risk for Human Health ....................... 377
17-2 Models for the Quantification of Chemical Intake by
Humans ................................................... 382
Exercise: Human Exposure, Intake, and Cancer Risk
Related to Ingestion of Aboveground Produce
Contaminated by Gas and Dust Deposition of 2,3,7,8-TCDD
Emitted from an Industrial Emission Source ............... 386
17-3 Ecological and Environmental Risk Assessment ............. 393
Exercise: Mapping Patch Area and Ecotones in South
America .................................................. 398
17-4 Data for GIS Based Risk Assessment ....................... 400
References ............................................... 401
Chapter 18. GIS Based Models in Practice: The Multimedia
Assessment of Pollutant Pathways in the Environment (MAPPE)
Model ......................................................... 405
18-1 Introduction ............................................. 405
18-2 Environmental Compartments Considered in the Model ....... 407
Atmosphere Compartment ................................... 409
Soil Compartment ......................................... 412
Inland Water Compartment ................................. 413
Seawater ................................................. 415
18-3 Implementation in GIS: Example with Lindane .............. 416
Scalar Input Quantities .................................. 416
Maps Describing Landscape and Climate Parameters ......... 418
Air Compartment Calculations ............................. 419
Soil Compartment Calculations ............................ 422
Inland Water Compartment Calculations .................... 427
Seawater Compartment Calculations ........................ 434
18-4 Using the Model For Scenario Assessment .................. 436
References ............................................... 441
Chapter 19. Inverse Modeling and Its Application to Water
Contaminants .................................................. 443
19-1 Introduction ............................................. 443
Exercise: Inverse Modeling of Caffeine in Europe ......... 447
References ............................................... 451
Chapter 20. Chemical Fate and Transport Indicators and the
Modeling of Contamination Patterns ............................ 453
20-1 The Relative Risk Model .................................. 453
Example: Relative Risk Assessment for Coastal
Ecosystems Due to Wastewater Emission in South Africa .... 456
20-2 Use of Chemical Fate and Transport Indicators in the
Context of Relative Risk Assessment: An Example with
Contaminants Applied to Soil Example: Generic Modeling
of Sewage Sludge Soil Application in Mexico .............. 464
References ............................................... 472
Chapter 21. Perspectives: The Challenge of Cumulative Impacts
and Planetary Boundaries ...................................... 475
References .................................................... 478
Index ......................................................... 481
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