I Background
1 Introduction to Consultation ................................. 3
The Effectiveness of Human Services Consultation ............. 5
Historical Influences on the Human Services Consultant Role .. 6
Theoretical Issues ........................................ 6
Professional Issues ....................................... 7
Pragmatic Issues .......................................... 8
Historical Influences on the School Consultant Role .......... 9
Developments from the 1940s Through the 1970s ............. 9
Developments During the 1980s and 1990s .................. 10
Contemporary Developments ................................ 11
Reconceptualizing Consultation for Today's Schools .......... 12
Historical Summary ....................................... 12
Our Definition of School Consultation .................... 12
Assumptions of Our Approach to School Consultation ....... 13
Topics Not Addressed in Our Approach to School
Consultation ............................................. 14
The Rest of the Book ........................................ 15
2 Problem Solving and Response to Intervention ................ 17
Establishing a Context for RTI and the Modern Practice of
School Consultation ......................................... 18
Prevention as a Philosophical Influence .................. 18
NCLB and IDEIA 2004 as Legislative Influences ............ 19
Empirical Influences ........................................ 20
Problem Solving ............................................. 21
What is Problem Solving? .................................... 21
Problem-Solving Teams ....................................... 22
RTI ......................................................... 24
What is RTI? ................................................ 24
RTI Systems of Implementation ............................... 24
Tier-Based Service Delivery Within RTI ...................... 25
Assessment and Intervention Methods Within RTI .............. 28
Conclusion .................................................. 29
3 Promoting Change in Schools ................................. 31
Changing Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behaviors Within
Consultation ................................................ 31
The Need for Consultee Change ............................ 31
Helping the Consultee to Change ............................. 33
Collaboration: What Is It? ............................... 33
Should Consultants Influence Consultees and the Process
of Consultation? ......................................... 34
Relevance of These Five Studies for School Consultants ... 38
A Clarification of Our Position .......................... 39
Are There Ethical Questions and Issues of Professional
Dissonance Regarding the Use of Influence in
Consultation? ............................................ 39
If It Is Not a Collaborative Relationship, Then What Is
It? ...................................................... 40
The Egalitarian Virus .................................... 41
General Strategies for Effecting Changes in Human Systems ... 41
Empirical-Rational Approach .............................. 42
Normative-Reeducative Approach ........................... 42
Power-Coercive Approach .................................. 42
Relevance of Chin and Benne's Strategies for School
Consultants .............................................. 43
The Bases of Social Power and Their Application to School
Consultation ................................................ 43
An Introduction to Social Power Bases and Social
Influence ................................................ 43
Coercive Power and Reward Power: Impersonal Forms ........ 45
Coercive and Reward Power: Personal Forms ................ 47
Legitimate Power: Position, Reciprocity, Equity,
and Responsibility-Dependence ............................ 48
Expert Power and Referent Power: Positive Forms .......... 49
The Expert-Referent Power Dilemma ........................ 50
Expert and Referent Power: Negative Forms ................ 50
Informational Power: Direct and Indirect Forms ........... 51
Empirical Studies of Raven's (1992, 1993) Social Power
Bases Applied to School Consultation ..................... 52
Relevance of Social Power Base Research Studies for
School Consultants ....................................... 54
Other Means of Influence .................................... 54
Invoking or Reducing the Power of Third Parties .......... 54
Preparatory Devices: Setting the Stage for Social
Influence ................................................ 55
The Mode of Influence .................................... 57
A Power/Interaction Model of Interpersonal Influence
and Its Application to School Consultation .................. 57
The Motivation to Influence .............................. 57
Assessment of Available Power Bases ...................... 59
Assessment of the Available Bases in Relation to
Target, Power, Preferences, and Inhibitions .............. 59
Preparing for the Influence Attempt ...................... 59
Choice of Power Bases and Mode in Influence Attempts ..... 60
Assessing the Effects of Influence ....................... 60
Conclusion .................................................. 60
Notes ....................................................... 61
4 The School as a Setting for Consultation .................... 63
Organizational Traditions in the Public School System ....... 64
Classical Organizational Theory .......................... 64
The Human Relations Movement ............................. 66
Organizational Behavior Theory ........................... 70
The Service Structure of Public Schools ..................... 71
Available Services ....................................... 71
The Refer-Test-Place Sequence ............................ 74
The Role of Consultation ................................. 76
School Consultation from an Administrative Perspective ...... 76
Factors Influencing the Use of Consultation Services ..... 76
The Three Paradoxes of School Consultation ............... 78
Part II Consultation Processes and Outcomes
5 Bases of an Integrated Model of School Consultation ......... 83
Community Mental Health and Mental Health Consultation
Bases .................................................... 83
Population-Oriented Preventive Model ..................... 84
Crisis Model ............................................. 85
Support Systems Model .................................... 86
Caplan's Model of Mental Health Consultation ............. 86
How the Mental Health Consultant Offers Support to
Consultees ............................................... 90
Behavioral Psychology and Behavioral Consultation Bases ..... 91
Problem-Solving Model .................................... 91
Application of Behavior Modification in Natural
Settings ................................................. 92
Bergan's Model of Behavioral Consultation ................ 92
Interpersonal Influence and Social Power Bases ........... 96
Summary of the Bases of an Integrated Model of School
Consultation ................................................ 97
Achieving Entry in School Consultation: Entering
the Service Delivery Network ................................ 97
Assessing the School as an Organization: Some General
Considerations ........................................... 98
Negotiating the Contract ................................ 100
Achieving School-Level (Physical) Entry ................. 101
Achieving Classroom-Level (Psychological) Entry ......... 102
6 Model Description and Application .......................... 105
A Critical Appraisal of Consultation Models ................ 105
Mental Health Consultation .............................. 105
Behavioral Consultation ................................. 107
The Consultative Relationship ........................... 110
An Integrated Model of School Consultation ................. 110
Precursors to School Consultation ....................... 113
The Problem-Solving Task ................................ 115
The Social Influence Task ............................... 117
The Support and Development Task ........................ 120
Outcomes of School Consultation ......................... 124
7 Assessment in School Consultation .......................... 127
Functional Behavior Assessment ............................. 129
Indirect Assessment Phase ............................... 131
Direct Assessment Phase ................................. 132
Systematic Formative Evaluation ............................ 134
Brief Experimental Analysis ................................ 136
8 Selecting Effective School-Based Interventions ............. 141
Effectiveness of Intervention Alternatives ................. 142
Results from Meta-Analytic Reviews ...................... 142
The Role of ABA in School-Based Intervention ............ 143
Conceptual Models of Children's Learning and Behavior
Problems ................................................... 144
Academic Intervention Models ......................... 144
Behavioral Intervention Models ....................... 147
Limitations of ABA Approaches to School-Based
Intervention ......................................... 151
Implementation Issues ...................................... 151
Conceptual Relevance .................................... 152
Treatment Strength ...................................... 153
Treatment Acceptability ................................. 153
Treatment Integrity ..................................... 154
Part III Key Participants in Consultation
9 Teachers as Consultees ..................................... 159
Perspectives on Teachers and Teaching ...................... 159
The Complexity of Classroom Teaching .................... 159
The Rewards of Teaching ................................. 161
Major Challenges Facing Teachers Today .................. 162
Teacher Recruitment, Attrition, and Retention ........... 164
Implications for the School Consultant .................. 164
Perspectives on Teachers and School Consultation ........... 165
Three Views on Why Teachers Seek Consultation ........... 165
Teacher Expectations for Consultation ................... 167
What Teachers Do Before Seeking Consultation ............ 169
Factors that Distinguish Teachers Who Participate
in Consultation from Those Who Do Not ................... 170
Increasing the Effectiveness of Consultation with Teachers . 171
Adapting Consultation to the Teacher's Schedule:
The 15-Min Consultation ................................. 171
Consulting as Part of a Prereferral Intervention/
Problem-Solving Team .................................... 172
Increasing Knowledge/Skill Transfer and Maintenance ..... 174
Providing Consultative Support to Teachers ................. 176
10 Students as Clients ........................................ 177
Legislation Governing Service Delivery in the Schools ...... 178
Educational Approaches to Classification ................... 180
Rationale for Classifying Special Needs Students ........ 181
Overview of Childhood Disabilities ...................... 182
Students Classified as Learning Disabled ................ 185
Students Classified as Emotionally Disturbed ............ 187
A Contextual Model of Student Achievement .................. 189
Variables Limiting Individualized Instruction ........... 189
Variables Related to Student Achievement ................ 190
11 Consultation Case Study .................................... 193
Problem Identification Interview: February 18 .............. 194
An Analysis of the First Interview ...................... 202
Problem Analysis Interview: March 4 ........................ 204
An Analysis of the Second Interview ..................... 212
Problem Evaluation Interview: April 9 ...................... 214
Child Measures .......................................... 214
Teacher/Consultation Case Measures ...................... 215
Conclusion ................................................. 215
12 Epilog: The Effective Practice of School Consultation ...... 217
References ................................................. 221
Author Index .................................................. 245
Subject Index ................................................. 253
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