1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Brain-Computer-Interfaces ............................... 1
1.1.1 BCIs based on EEG with the input signals SCPs,
SMR, P300 and SSVEP .............................. 2
1.1.2 BCIs based on MEG ................................ 8
1.1.3 BCIs based on hemodynamic signals ................ 9
1.1.4 Hybrid BCIs ..................................... 10
1.2 The locked-in syndrome and amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS) ........................................ 13
1.2.1 ALS symptoms .................................... 13
1.2.2 Psychological aspects of ALS .................... 15
1.3 Motivation ............................................. 17
1.3.1 What is motivation? ............................. 17
1.3.2 Learning motivation and the person situation
interaction ..................................... 18
1.3.3 The Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) ........... 22
1.3.4 The Self-determination Theory ................... 26
1.3.5 Expectancy x value theories ..................... 29
1.3.6 How could motivation influence brain activity
during BCI use? ................................. 33
1.3.7 Studies showing the effect of monetary reward
on P300 amplitude ............................... 42
1.3.8 Studies showing a relation between motivation
and BCI performance ............................. 44
Hypotheses .................................................. 49
3 Methods and Results ......................................... 51
3.1 Monitoring the effect of motivation in BCI use ......... 51
3.1.1 Monitoring the effect of motivation in SMR BCI .. 51
3.1.2 Monitoring the effect of motivation in P300
BCI performance ................................. 57
3.1.3 Main hypothesis 1: The influence of motivation
on BCI performance .............................. 62
Conclusions from monitoring ................................. 62
3.2 Manipulating the effect of Motivation in BCI use ....... 63
3.2.1 Manipulating motivation with monetary reward
in healthy participants when usinga P300 BCI .... 63
3.2.2 Manipulating motivation with monetary reward
in ALS patients when using a P300 BCI ........... 78
3.2.3 Manipulating motivation with non-monetary
reward in healthy participants when using a
P300 BCI ........................................ 92
3.2.4 Manipulating motivation with monetary reward
in healthy participants when using SMR BCI ..... 122
3.3 Main hypotheses: A conclusive summary ................. 146
3.3.1 Main Hypothesis One - Sample Size .............. 146
3.3.2 Main Hypothesis Two - monetary reward .......... 147
3.3.3 Main Hypothesis Three - motivation and
performance .................................... 150
4 General Discussion ......................................... 152
4.1 MOTIVE: A MOTIvation model including Valence and
Expectancy ............................................ 155
4.1.1 Expectancy in the MOTIVE model ................. 156
4.1.2 Valence in the MOTIVE model .................... 157
4.1.3 Expectancy x valence in the MOTIVE Model ....... 161
4.1.4 The MOTIVE P300 Model of BCI control ........... 162
4.1.5 The MOTIVE SMR Model of BCI control ............ 163
4.2 Possible other influencing factors .................... 169
4.3 Rewards ............................................... 171
4.4 Methodological shortcomings ........................... 174
5 Conclusion ................................................. 177
References .................................................... 179
Appendices .................................................... 195
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