1 Introduction to Carbon Capture ............................... 1
1.1 Relationship Between CO2 and Climate .................... 3
1.2 CO2 Sources and Sinks ................................... 6
1.3 Formation Pathways of CO2 .............................. 13
1.4 Advanced Coal Conversion Processes ..................... 17
1.5 Minimum Thermodynamic Work for CO2 Separation .......... 22
1.6 Cost of CO2 Capture .................................... 27
References .................................................. 31
2 Compression and Transport of CO2 ............................ 35
2.1 Thermodynamic Properties of CO2 ........................ 35
2.2 How a Compressor Works ................................. 37
2.3 Compression Cycles ..................................... 39
2.4 Compressor Power ....................................... 41
2.5 Advanced Compression ................................... 45
2.6 Pipeline Transport ..................................... 46
References .................................................. 50
3 Absorption .................................................. 53
3.1 Solubility of CO2 in Aqueous Solutions ................. 56
3.2 Diffusion of CO2 in Aqueous Solutions .................. 60
3.3 Chemical Kinetics of CO2 in Solution ................... 64
3.3.1 Role of Catalysis in Absorption ................. 71
3.4 Determining the Rate of Absorption ..................... 73
3.4.1 Liquid-Phase Resistance: Mass Transfer
Theories ........................................ 75
3.4.2 Liquid-Phase Resistance: Mass Transfer
Relations ....................................... 86
3.5 Design Parameters for Packed Columns ................... 88
3.5.1 Trays vs. Packing ............................... 89
3.5.2 Pressure Drop ................................... 91
3.5.3 Material Balances ............................... 91
3.5.4 Column Height Estimation ........................ 96
3.5.5 Column Diameter Estimation ..................... 100
3.6 Work Required for Separation .......................... 102
3.7 Problems .............................................. 107
References ................................................. 110
4 Adsorption ................................................. 115
4.1 Adsorption Fundamentals ............................... 117
4.1.1 Physical Adsorption ............................ 117
4.1.2 Chemical Adsorption ............................ 126
4.2 Common Types of Sorbents .............................. 129
4.2.1 Water Adsorption ............................... 135
4.2.2 Pore Characterization .......................... 136
4.2.3 Peptization .................................... 141
4.3 Adsorption Kinetics ................................... 142
4.3.1 Diffusion in Pores ............................. 142
4.3.2 Mass Transfer .................................. 145
4.3.3 Heat-Transfer Effects .......................... 150
4.3.4 Axial Dispersion ............................... 151
4.4 Column Dynamics ....................................... 152
4.4.1 Mass-Transfer Zone ............................. 152
4.4.2 Breakthrough ................................... 153
4.5 Adsorption Processes .................................. 157
4.6 Adsorption Cycles ..................................... 159
4.7 Work Required for Separation .......................... 162
4.8 Problems .............................................. 169
References ................................................. 171
5 Membrane Technology ........................................ 177
5.1 Common Membrane Materials ............................. 179
5.2 Membrane Transport Mechanisms ......................... 179
5.3 Nonporous Membranes ................................... 180
5.3.1 Permeability and Selectivity ................... 182
5.3.2 Solubility ..................................... 188
5.3.3 Diffusion ...................................... 191
5.4 Facilitated-Transport Membranes ....................... 195
5.5 Porous Membranes ...................................... 197
5.6 Membrane Architecture ................................. 200
5.7 Product Purity and Yield .............................. 201
5.8 Pressure Drop ......................................... 205
5.9 Membrane Modules and Flows ............................ 205
5.10 Multiple-Stage Separator Arrangements ................. 207
5.11 Work Required for Separation .......................... 209
5.12 Problems .............................................. 214
References ................................................. 215
6 Cryogenic Distillation and Air Separation .................. 219
6.1 Cryogenic Distillation ................................ 219
6.2 Air Separation ........................................ 222
6.2.1 Cryogenic Air Separation ....................... 224
6.2.2 Air Separation using Adsorption ................ 225
6.2.3 Air Separation using Membrane Technology ....... 226
References ................................................. 228
7 The Role of Algae in Carbon Capture ........................ 231
7.1 Microalgae to Biofuel ................................. 232
7.1.1 Theoretical Maximum of Algae-based Biofuel
Production ..................................... 233
7.1.2 Properties of Algae-based Biofuel .............. 235
7.2 Microalgae Production ................................. 237
7.2.1 Cultivation Technology ......................... 238
7.3 CO2 Mitigation Potential .............................. 240
7.4 Challenges of Microalgae-to-Biofuel Processes ......... 240
References ................................................. 241
8 The Role of CO2 Reduction Catalysis in Carbon Capture ...... 245
8.1 Electrochemical Catalytic Reduction of CO2 ............ 247
8.2 Electrocatalysis Tutorial ............................. 247
8.3 Photocatalytic Reduction .............................. 253
8.4 Challenges in Catalytic Approaches to CO2 Reduction ... 254
References ................................................. 255
9 The Role of Mineral Carbonation in Carbon Capture .......... 257
9.1 Natural and Accelerated Weathering .................... 258
9.2 Natural Alkaline Sources .............................. 259
9.2.1 Direct Carbonation ............................. 260
9.2.2 Indirect Carbonation ........................... 260
9.2.3 Ultramafic Mineral Carbonation ................. 261
9.3 Brine Carbonation ..................................... 263
9.4 Industrial Alkaline Sources ........................... 263
9.4.1 Aggregate Production from Mineral Carbonation .. 266
9.4.2 Alkaline Availability .......................... 267
9.4.3 Market Availability of Synthetic Aggregate
Use ............................................ 269
9.5 Challenges of Mineral Carbonation Processes for CCS ... 270
References ................................................. 271
Appendix ...................................................... 275
Glossary ...................................................... 305
Index ......................................................... 317
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