Foreword ..................................................... xvii
Contributors .................................................. xxi
CHAPTER 1 Tribological Applications of Polymers and Their
Composites - Past, Present and Future Prospects ................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Classical Works on Polymer Tribology ....................... 3
1.2.1 Friction ............................................ 3
1.2.2 Wear ................................................ 4
1.3 Tribology of Polymer Composites ............................ 7
1.3.1 Bulk modification - "hard and strong" fillers in
a "softer" matrix ................................... 8
1.3.2 Interface modification - "soft" and "lubricating"
fillers in a "hard and strong" matrix ............... 8
1.4 Tribology of Polymer Nanocomposites ........................ 9
1.5 Future Prospects .......................................... 17
1.6 Final Remarks ............................................. 18
Acknowledgment ............................................ 19
Notations and Abbreviations ............................... 19
References ................................................ 20
CHAPTER 2 The Effect of Nanoparticle Fillers on Transfer
Film Formation and the Tribological Behavior of Polymers ....... 23
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 23
2.2 Transfer Film Development and Characteristics ............. 25
2.2.1 Transfer film deposition ........................... 25
2.2.2 Parameters affecting the formation of transfer
film ............................................... 26
2.3 Effect of Fillers on Wear and Transfer Films .............. 29
2.4 Filler and Transfer Film Characteristics for Reduction
in Wear ................................................... 40
2.4.1 Transfer film bonding .............................. 42
2.5 Concluding Remarks ........................................ 44
References ................................................ 46
CHAPTER 3 Synergistic Effects of Nanoparticles and
Traditional Tribofillers on Sliding Wear of Polymeric Hybrid
Composites ..................................................... 49
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 50
3.2 The Tribological Roles of Various Fillers in Sliding
Wear of Polymer Composites ................................ 51
3.2.1 Short fiber reinforcements ......................... 51
3.2.2 Effects of solid lubricants: development of
a transfer film layer .............................. 54
3.2.3 Nanosized fillers: polymer nanocomposites .......... 55
3.3 Development of Polymeric Hybrid Nanocomposites for High
Wear Resistance ........................................... 57
3.3.1 State of the art ................................... 57
3.3.2 Integration of nanoparticles with short fibers
and solid lubricants in selected polymer matrices .. 58
3.3.3 Recent advances in high temperature-resistant
polymer composites ................................. 72
3.4 Artificial Neural Networks Applied in the Tribology of
Polymeric Hybrid Composites ............................... 75
3.4.1 General remarks .................................... 75
3.4.2 Wear prediction .................................... 76
3.4.3 Ranking the importance of characteristic
properties of polymer composites to wear rate ...... 77
3.4.4 Online wear monitoring ............................. 79
3.5 Summary ................................................... 83
Acknowledgments ........................................... 84
References ................................................ 84
CHAPTER 4 The Influence of Nanoparticle Fillers on the
Friction and Wear Behavior of Polymer Matrices ................. 91
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 91
4.2 Influence of Volume Content of Nanoparticles on the
Friction and Wear Behavior of Polymers .................... 92
4.3 Influence of the Size and Shape of Nanoparticles on
the Friction and Wear Behavior of Polymers ................ 95
4.4 Influence of Nanoparticles in Combination with
Traditional Tribofillers on the Friction and Wear
Behavior of Polymers ...................................... 97
4.5 The Role of Nanoparticles in Modifying the Friction
and Wear Behavior of Polymers ............................. 99
4.6 Influence of Nanoparticles on the Friction and Wear
Behavior of Polymers Under Different Testing Conditions .. 106
4.7 Summary .................................................. 113
References ............................................... 114
CHAPTER 5 Tribological Behavior of Polymer Nanocomposites
Produced by Dispersion of Nanofillers in Molten
Thermoplastics ................................................ 119
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 120
5.2 Technology of Nanocomposites ............................. 121
5.2.1 Polymer-clay nanocomposites ....................... 121
5.2.2 Polymer-carbon nanocomposites ..................... 125
5.2.3 Metal-containing polymer nanocomposites ........... 127
5.2.4 Solid-phase extrusion in nanocomposite
technology ........................................ 128
5.3 Friction of Nanocomposites ............................... 129
5.3.1 Friction of a polymer over a hard counterface ..... 129
5.3.2 Effect of nanofillers on frictional behavior of
PMs ............................................... 132
5.3.3 Frictional interaction of metals with different
polymer nanocomposites ............................ 133
5.4 Application of Nanocomposites in Friction Units .......... 147
5.5 Conclusions .............................................. 148
Nomenclature ............................................. 149
References ............................................... 151
CHAPTER 6 Sliding Wear Performance of Epoxy-Based
Nanocomposites ................................................ 163
6.1 Introduction and the State of the Art .................... 163
6.2 EP Filled with Grafted SiC Nanoparticles ................. 171
6.2.1 Friction and wear performance of EP filled with
untreated SiC nanoparticles ....................... 171
6.2.2 Friction and wear performance of EP filled with
SiC-g-PGMA and SiC-g-P(GMA-co-St) ................. 173
6.2.3 Effect of the reaction between grafted polymer
and EP matrix on the nanocomposites' surface
feature ........................................... 177
6.3 EP Filled with Lubricant Oil-Loaded Microcapsules,
Grafted SiO2 Nanoparticles, and SCFs ..................... 186
6.4 Summary .................................................. 197
List of Abbreviations .................................... 198
Acknowledgments .......................................... 199
References ............................................... 200
CHAPTER 7 Wear Simulation of a Polymer-Steel Sliding Pair
Considering Temperature- and Time-Dependent Material
Properties .................................................... 205
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 205
7.2 Characterizing the Wear Process in a PoDC ................ 207
7.3 The Algorithm of the Wear Simulation ..................... 209
7.3.1 Temperature-dependent creep parameters ............ 209
7.3.2 Contact modeling .................................. 209
7.3.3 Heat generation and thermal expansion of the
PoDC .............................................. 213
7.3.4 The wear modeling ................................. 214
7.4 Wear Simulation Results .................................. 215
7.4.1 Running-in phase .................................. 215
7.4.2 Wear simulation at 150°C .......................... 218
7.5 Conclusions .............................................. 222
Acknowledgment ........................................... 224
References ............................................... 224
CHAPTER 8 On the Friction and Wear of Carbon Nanofiber-
Reinforced PEEK-Based Polymer Composites ...................... 227
8.1 Introduction and Motivation .............................. 228
8.2 Common Strategies to Enhance the Tribological Behavior
of Polymers .............................................. 229
8.2.1 Enhancing the wear resistance by addition of
microscale additives .............................. 232
8.2.2 Enhancing the wear resistance by the addition of
nanoscale additives ............................... 233
8.3 CNTs and CNFs ............................................ 238
8.3.1 Structures and appearances ........................ 238
8.3.2 Synthesis ......................................... 242
8.3.3 Intrinsic mechanical properties ................... 243
8.4 CNF-Reinforced PEEK Nanocomposites ....................... 245
8.4.1 Materials and specimen preparation ................ 246
8.4.2 Rheological behavior .............................. 248
8.4.3 Microstructural assessment ........................ 251
8.4.4 Mechanical behavior ............................... 258
8.4.5 Tribological performance .......................... 264
8.5 Hybrid Materials - CF-Reinforced PEEK-CNF Composites ..... 272
8.5.1 Hybrid materials—motivation and state of the art .. 272
8.5.2 Tribological performance of hybrid PEEK-CNF
nanocomposites .................................... 281
8.6 Advanced Hybrid PEEK-CNF Composites ...................... 284
8.6.1 Materials strategy ................................ 284
8.6.2 Tribological performance .......................... 287
8.6.3 Mechanical behavior ............................... 289
8.6.4 Selection guidelines of hybrid materials for
tribological applications ......................... 292
8.7 Summary .................................................. 292
Acknowledgments .......................................... 294
References ............................................... 294
CHAPTER 9 Wear Behavior of Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced
Polyethylene and Epoxy Composites ............................. 307
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 308
9.2 Experimental Details ..................................... 312
9.2.1 Base materials .................................... 312
9.2.2 Specimen preparation .............................. 313
9.2.3 Testing procedures ................................ 319
9.3 Results and Discussion ................................... 322
9.3.1 Thermomechanical and structural characterization
of EP/CNT composites .............................. 322
9.3.2 Wear test results ................................. 328
9.4 Conclusions .............................................. 347
9.4.1 CNT-reinforced epoxy composites ................... 347
9.4.2 CNT-reinforced polyethylene composites ............ 348
Acknowledgments .......................................... 349
References ............................................... 349
CHAPTER 10 Tribological Properties of Carbon Nanotube-
Reinforced Composites ......................................... 353
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 354
10.2 Materials ................................................ 354
10.2.1 Carbon nanotube-doped carbon fiber/carbon
composites ........................................ 354
10.2.2 Randomly dispersed carbon nanotube/epoxy
composites ........................................ 356
10.2.3 Well-ACNT/epoxy composites ........................ 359
10.2.4 Well-ACNT/carbon composites ....................... 359
10.3 Experiments .............................................. 359
10.3.1 Friction and wear tests ........................... 359
10.3.2 Microstructure and related properties ............. 363
10.4 The Friction and Wear Properties of Carbon Nanotube-
Reinforced Composites .................................... 364
10.4.1 The friction and wear properties of carbon
nanotube-doped carbon/carbon composites ........... 364
10.4.2 Friction and Wear Properties of Randomly
Dispersed Carbon Nanotube/Epoxy Composites ........ 370
10.4.3 Friction and Wear Properties of Well-ACNT/Epoxy
Composites ........................................ 373
10.4.4 Friction and Wear Properties of Well-ACNT/Carbon
Composites ........................................ 376
10.5 Some Common Characteristics about Wear Mechanisms
of Carbon Nanotube-Reinforced Composites ................. 380
10.6 Conclusions and Suggestions .............................. 382
Acknowledgment ........................................... 384
References ............................................... 385
CHAPTER 11 Wear and Wear Maps of Hard Coatings ................ 387
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 387
11.2 Delamination of Hard Coatings by Indentation ............. 387
11.3 Progressive Wear and Delamination of Hard Coatings
in Repeated Sliding ...................................... 390
11.4 Low Cycle Fatigue Law of Delamination .................... 394
11.5 Wear Maps of Hard Coatings ............................... 398
11.6 Summary .................................................. 402
References ............................................... 403
CHAPTER 12 Hybridized Carbon Nanocomposite Thin Films:
Synthesis, Structures and Tribological Properties ............. 405
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 405
12.2 Hybridization of Carbon Allotropes in Thin Film
Configurations ........................................... 407
12.3 Hybridized Carbon Nanocomposite Films with Multilayered
Configuration ............................................ 409
12.3.1 Synthesis ......................................... 410
12.3.2 Microstructures and tribological properties ....... 413
12.4 Hybridized Carbon Nanocomposite Film with Vertically
Aligned Configuration .................................... 418
12.4.1 Synthesis ......................................... 419
12.4.2 Structures and tribological properties of
hybridized column/intercolumn film ................ 423
12.5 Conclusions .............................................. 430
Acknowledgments .......................................... 431
References ............................................... 431
CHAPTER 13 Sliding Friction and Wear of "Nanomodified" and
Coated Rubbers ................................................ 437
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 437
13.2 Rubber (Nano) Composites ................................. 438
13.2.1 Fillers ........................................... 438
13.2.2 Reinforcements .................................... 442
13.2.3 "Hybrid" rubbers .................................. 451
13.3 Rubber Coatings .......................................... 456
13.3.1 Thermoplastics .................................... 456
13.3.2 Thermosets ........................................ 458
13.4 Summary and Outlook ...................................... 460
Acknowledgments .......................................... 460
References ............................................... 460
CHAPTER 14 Scratch Damage Resistance of Silica-Based
Sol-Gel Coatings on Polymeric Substrates ...................... 467
14.1 Introduction ............................................. 468
14.2 Mechanics of Scratch ..................................... 469
14.2.1 Stresses due to normal contact on a monolithic
material .......................................... 469
14.2.2 Influence of a tangential load on the normal
contact ........................................... 472
14.2.3 Stresses in coated systems under scratch loading .. 472
14.3 Scratch Failure Modes .................................... 476
14.3.1 Hertz tensile cracks .............................. 478
14.3.2 Tensile trailing cracks ........................... 479
14.3.3 Forward chevron tensile cracks .................... 480
14.3.4 Conformal cracks .................................. 481
14.3.5 Buckling spallation ............................... 481
14.3.6 Wedge spallation .................................. 483
14.3.7 Recovery spallation ............................... 484
14.3.8 Gross spallation .................................. 484
14.4 Fracture Toughness and Interface Toughness Measurement .. 485
14.4.1 The controlled buckling experiment ................ 485
14.4.2 Fracture toughness calculation .................... 487
14.4.3 Interface toughness calculation ................... 488
14.5 Scratch Performance of Sol-Gel Coatings on Polymeric
Substrates ............................................... 489
14.5.1 GLYMO-TEOS coatings with colloidal silica
fillers ........................................... 489
14.5.2 UV-curable sol-gel coating with incorporated
functional polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes
nanoparticles ..................................... 495
14.5.3 Interface adhesion enhancement by thermal
impregnation treatment ............................ 497
14.5.4 General discussion on coating scratch resistance .. 501
14.6 Conclusion ............................................... 503
Acknowledgments .......................................... 505
References ............................................... 505
CHAPTER 15 Scratch Behavior of Polymeric Materials ............ 513
15.1 Introduction ............................................. 513
15.2 Review of Past Work ...................................... 514
15.2.1 Scratch testing and evaluation .................... 514
15.2.2 Numerical analysis of scratch behavior ............ 516
15.3 The Need for Research and Development .................... 516
15.4 Recent Progress .......................................... 517
15.4.1 Test methods ...................................... 517
15.4.2 Evaluation ........................................ 519
15.4.3 Experimental demonstration of methodology ......... 522
15.4.4 Implementation of finite element modeling ......... 530
15.5 Summary and Conclusions .................................. 544
Acknowledgments .......................................... 545
References ............................................... 546
CHAPTER 16 Wear and Scratch Damage in Polymer Nanocomposites .. 551
16.1 Background ............................................... 551
16.2 Wear/Scratch Damage in Polymer Nanocomposites ............ 552
16.2.1 Effect of coefficient of friction ................. 552
16.2.2 Evaluation of scratch/wear resistance ............. 557
16.2.3 Surface roughness ................................. 561
16.2.4 Anisotropic response .............................. 562
16.3 Coatings ................................................. 565
16.4 Concluding Remarks ....................................... 567
Acknowledgments .......................................... 568
References ............................................... 568
CHAPTER 17 Polytetrafluoroethylene Matrix Nanocomposites
for Tribological Applications ................................. 571
17.1 Introduction ............................................. 571
17.1.1 Motivation and organization ....................... 571
17.1.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene as a solid lubricant ...... 572
17.1.3 PTFE-based tribological composites ................ 574
17.1.4 PTFE-based nanocomposites ......................... 575
17.2 Current and Ongoing Studies .............................. 577
17.2.1 Investigations of particle size ................... 577
17.2.2 Investigations of transfer films .................. 582
17.2.3 Investigations of internal interfaces ............. 593
17.2.4 Investigations of matrix phase and morphology ..... 596
17.3 Hypothesized Model of Wear Resistance Mechanisms in
PTFE Solid Lubricants .................................... 609
17.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 609
17.3.2 Wear of unfilled PTFE ............................. 609
17.3.3 Wear of PTFE microcomposites ...................... 610
17.3.4 Wear of PTFE nanocomposites ....................... 610
17.3.5 Summary ........................................... 612
Acknowledgments .......................................... 612
References ............................................... 613
CHAPTER 18 Development of Nanostructured Slide Coatings
for Automotive Components ..................................... 619
18.1 Introduction ............................................. 619
18.2 Mechanical Properties of Slide Coatings .................. 621
18.2.1 Operation temperature ............................. 622
18.2.2 Compression loading capability .................... 624
18.3 Matrices for Slide Coatings .............................. 627
18.3.1 Polyamide imide ................................... 627
18.3.2 Epoxy resins ...................................... 630
18.3.3 PPP copolymer and PEEK ............................ 632
18.4 Nanoparticle-Filled Slide Coatings for Automotive
Applications ............................................. 636
18.4.1 Slide coatings for piston skirts .................. 636
18.4.2 Polymer/metal-slide bearings ...................... 639
18.5 Conclusions and Outlook .................................. 644
References ............................................... 645
CHAPTER 19 Friction and Wear Behavior of PEEK and its
Composite Coatings ............................................ 649
19.1 Introduction ............................................. 650
19.2 Coating Procedures ....................................... 651
19.3 Characterization of the Coating Crystalline Structure .... 651
19.4 Adherence of Coatings .................................... 655
19.5 Correlation Between the Coating Crystalline Structure
and Its Tribological Behavior ............................ 657
19.6 Effects of Sliding Condition on the Tribological
Behavior and Mechanisms of Amorphous PEEK Coatings ....... 658
19.6.1 Experimental ...................................... 662
19.6.2 Dependence of the tribological behavior on the
sliding velocity and applied load ................. 662
19.6.3 Dependence of the tribological mechanism on
the ambient temperature ........................... 671
19.7 Tribological Behavior of Nano-SiC (7 wt.%)-Filled
PEEK Coatings ............................................ 674
19.7.1 Experimental ...................................... 677
19.7.2 Results and discussion ............................ 678
19.8 Conclusions .............................................. 682
List of Symbols and Abbreviations ........................ 682
Acknowledgments .......................................... 683
References ............................................... 683
CHAPTER 20 Surface Engineering with Micro- and Nanosized
Solid Lubricants for Enhanced Performance of Polymer
Composites and Bearings ....................................... 687
20.1 Introduction ............................................. 688
20.2 Surface-Engineered Composites and Bearings From
Polyether-ether-ketone and Carbon Fabric ................. 689
20.2.1 Commingling of fibers for composites .............. 689
20.2.2 Materials and methodology ......................... 690
20.2.3 Characterization of the composites ................ 696
20.2.4 Tribological testing of composites and bearings ... 699
20.3 Surface Engineering with Micro- and Nanosized Solid
Lubricants ............................................... 700
20.3.1 Nanofillers for enhancement of triboperformance ... 700
20.3.2 Nano- and micro-PTFE for surface modification of
a tribocomposite .................................. 703
20.3.3 Materials and methodology ......................... 704
20.3.4 Characterization of composites .................... 706
20.3.5 Tribocharacterization of composites ............... 706
20.4 Concluding Remarks ....................................... 711
20.4.1 Concluding remarks from studies in Section 20.2 ... 711
20.4.2 Concluding remarks from the studies in Section
20.3 .............................................. 713
Acknowledgments .......................................... 713
References ............................................... 713
CHAPTER 21 Novel Nanocomposites and Hybrids for High-
Temperature Lubricating Coating Applications .................. 717
21.1 Introduction ............................................. 718
21.2 Why Polymer Nanocomposites? .............................. 720
21.3 Thermostable Lubricating Coatings ........................ 723
21.3.1 Fluoropolymer coating ............................. 723
21.3.2 Hydrophobic plasma coatings ....................... 723
21.3.3 Oxometallate cluster-based nanocomposite
coatings .......................................... 727
21.3.4 Self-assembled, nanophase particle coating ........ 733
21.3.5 Clay-based nanocomposites ......................... 734
21.3.6 CNT-based coating ................................. 736
21.3.7 Graphene-based nanocomposites ..................... 738
21.3.8 Thin films and multilayer coatings ................ 740
21.3.9 Polymer brushes ................................... 744
21.3.10 Hybrids .......................................... 745
21.3.11 Friction control in biomaterials using Polymer
Nanocomposite .................................... 746
21.3.12 Stimuli-responsive 'smart' polymer
nanocomposites ................................... 749
21.4 Fundamentals of Polymer Nanocomposite Tribology .......... 749
21.4.1 Friction .......................................... 749
21.4.2 Wear .............................................. 750
21.4.3 Contact mechanisms ................................ 751
21.4.4 Molecular dynamics simulations .................... 751
21.5 Lubrication Mechanism in Nanocomposite Coatings and
Thin Films ............................................... 753
21.6 Critical Parameters in Lubrication ....................... 755
21.6.1 Surface preparation ............................... 755
21.6.2 Nature of solid surface ........................... 755
21.6.3 Hardness of the coating ........................... 755
21.6.4 Thickness of the coating .......................... 756
21.6.5 Shear strength of the coating ..................... 756
21.6.6 Coating/substrate interfacial adhesion ............ 756
21.6.7 Factors influencing lubricating coating
performance ....................................... 756
21.7 Friction in Polymer Nanocomposite Processing ............. 757
21.8 Tribological Characterization ............................ 760
21.8.1 Microthermal analysis ............................. 760
21.8.2 Atomic force microscopy ........................... 762
21.8.3 Kelvin probe technique ............................ 764
21.8.4 Nanoindentation ................................... 766
21.9 Applications ............................................. 766
21.10 Future Outlook .......................................... 767
References ............................................... 767
CHAPTER 22 A Novel Neural Network Approach for Modeling
Tribological Properties of PolyPhenylene Sulfide Reinforced
on Different Scales ........................................... 779
22.1 Introduction ............................................. 779
22.2 Methods .................................................. 780
22.2.1 Experimental data ................................. 780
22.2.2 The artificial neural network approach ............ 781
22.2.3 Training Algorithm ................................ 784
22.2.4 Procedure ......................................... 785
22.3 Results and Discussion ................................... 786
22.4 Conclusions .............................................. 791
Acknowledgments ............................................... 792
References .................................................... 792
Index ......................................................... 795
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