Preface ........................................................ ix
About the Authors ............................................ xiii
1 Graphene: An Introduction .................................. 1
1.1 Graphene: History and Background ........................... 1
1.2 Graphene Properties ........................................ 4
1.2.1 Electrical Transport Property ....................... 5
1.2.2 Quantum Hall Effect ................................ 14
1.2.3 Optical Properties ................................. 15
1.2.4 Mechanical Properties .............................. 19
1.2.5 Thermal Properties ................................. 20
References ................................................ 22
2 Graphene Synthesis ........................................ 31
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 31
2.2 Mechanical Exfoliation .................................... 31
2.3 Alternatives to Mechanical Exfoliation .................... 34
2.3.1 Chemical Method .................................... 36
2.3.2 Total Organic Synthesis ............................ 37
2.3-3 Depositions ........................................ 39
2.3.3.1 Overview .................................. 39
2.3.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition ................. 41
2.3.3.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor
Deposition ................................ 44
2.3.4 Thermal Decomposition .............................. 45
2.3.5 Thermal Decomposition on Other Substrates .......... 46
2.3.6 Unzipping Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes ............... 47
2.3.7 Electrochemical Synthesis .......................... 48
2.3.8 Other Available Methods ............................ 51
References ................................................ 52
3 Surface Characterization of Graphene ...................... 59
3.1 Graphene Characterization ................................. 59
3.1.1 Optical Imaging of Graphene Layers ................. 59
3.1.2 Fluorescence Quenching Technique ................... 60
3.1.3 Atomic Force Microscopy ............................ 62
3.1.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy ................... 63
3.1.5 Raman Spectroscopy ................................. 68
3.1.6 Electrochemical Characterization ................... 70
References ................................................ 73
4 Graphene-Based Materials in Gas Sensors ................... 77
4.1 Graphene-Based Materials as Gas Sensors ................... 77
4.1.1 Improving Graphene's Gas Sensing by the Insertion
of Dopants or Defects .............................. 85
4.1.1.1 CO on Graphene ............................ 88
4.1.1.2 NO on Graphene ............................ 91
4.1.1.3 NO2 on Graphene ........................... 92
4.1.1.4 NH3 on Graphene ........................... 93
4.1.2 Density of States of the Molecule-Graphene System .. 95
4.1.3 The I-V Curves of Molecules on Graphene ............ 97
4.1.4 Concerns for Practical Application ................. 99
4.2 Graphene as a Membrane for Gas Separation ................ 100
References ............................................... 114
5 Graphene-Based Materials in Biosensing and Energy
Storage Applications ..................................... 119
5.1 Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Graphene ............. 119
5.1.1 Graphene-Based Enzymatic Biosensors ............... 119
5.1.2 Graphene-DNA Biosensors ........................... 121
5.1.3 Graphene Sensors for Heavy Metal Ion Detection .... 123
5.1.4 Graphene for the Rapid Sequencing of DNA
Molecules ......................................... 124
5.2 Graphene for Energy Storage Applications ................. 132
5.2.1 Transparent Electrodes Based on Graphene .......... 132
5.2.2 Ultracapacitors Based on Graphene ................. 133
5.2.3 N-Doped Graphene for Oxygen Reduction in Fuel
Cells ............................................. 141
References ............................................... 149
6 Graphene-Based Materials for Photonic and
Optoelectronic Applications .............................. 159
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 159
6.2 Linear Optical Absorption ................................ 162
6.3 Saturable Absorption ..................................... 164
6.4 Luminescence ............................................. 165
6.5 Transparent Conductors ................................... 167
6.6 Photovoltaic Devices ..................................... 168
6.7 Light-Emitting Devices ................................... 170
6.8 Photodetectors ........................................... 172
6.9 Touch Screens ............................................ 173
6.10 Flexible Smart Windows and Bistable Displays ............. 175
6.11 Saturable Absorbers and Ultrafast Lasers ................. 176
6.12 Optical Limiters ......................................... 181
6.13 Optical Frequency Converters ............................. 181
6.14 Terahertz Devices ........................................ 182
References ............................................... 183
Index ......................................................... 191
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