Thermo-mechanical processing of metallic materials (Amsterdam; Boston, 2007). - ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ / CONTENTS
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ОбложкаThermo-mechanical processing of metallic materials / B.Verlinden et al.; ed. by R.W.Cahn. - Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier, 2007. - xxi, 528 p.: ill. - (Pergamon materials series; vol.11). - Пер. загл.: Термомехан. обработка метал. материалов. - ISBN 978-0-08-044497-0
 

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Оглавление / Contents
 
Preface ...................................................... xvii
List of Symbols ............................................... xix
Abbreviations ................................................. xxi

PART I: SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1  General Introduction ................................. 3

CHAPTER 2  Microstructure and Properties ........................ 9
2.1  Introduction ............................................... 9
2.2  Microstructure ............................................. 9
     2.2.1  Solidification ..................................... 11
     2.2.2  Interfaces ......................................... 17
2.3  Properties ................................................ 24
     2.3.1  Physical Properties ................................ 26
     2.3.2  Chemical Properties ................................ 26
     2.3.3  Mechanical Properties .............................. 26
     2.3.4  Electrical Properties .............................. 28
     2.3.5  Magnetic Properties ................................ 29
     2.3.6  Thermal Properties ................................. 30
     Literature ................................................ 30

CHAPTER 3  Plasticity .......................................... 33
3.1  Introduction .............................................. 33
3.2  Fundamentals .............................................. 33
     3.2.1  Flow Stresses and Strains .......................... 33
     3.2.2  Generalized Stresses and Strains ................... 35
     3.2.3  Yield Criteria ..................................... 37
3.3  Stress-Strain Relations ................................... 39
3.4  Plastic Anisotropy ........................................ 42
3.5  Fracture .................................................. 46
     3.5.1  Failure Mechanisms ................................. 48
     Literature ................................................ 54

CHAPTER 4  Work Hardening ...................................... 57
4.1  Introduction .............................................. 57
4.2  'Low' Temperature ......................................... 57
     4.2.1  Basic Microscopic Mechanisms ....................... 57
     4.2.2  Influence of Alloying Elements ..................... 67
     4.2.3  Microscopic Hardening Laws ......................... 72
4.3  Hot Deformation ........................................... 75
     4.3.1  Flow Stresses ...................................... 75
     4.3.2  Hot Deformation Microstructures .................... 79
     Literature ................................................ 81

CHAPTER 5  Softening Mechanisms ................................ 85
5.1  Introduction .............................................. 85
5.2  Recovery .................................................. 86
     5.2.1  Recovery Mechanisms ................................ 88
     5.2.2  Recovery Kinetics .................................. 90
     5.2.3  Structural Changes During Recovery ................. 91
     5.2.4  Extended Recovery/Continuous Recrystallization ..... 92
5.3  Recrystallization ......................................... 94
     5.3.1  Sources of Recrystallized Grains ................... 95
     5.3.2  Recrystallization Mechanisms ....................... 98
     5.3.3  Recrystallization Kinetics ........................ 100
     5.3.4  Role of Second Phase .............................. 101
     5.3.5  Dynamic Recrystallization ......................... 102
5.4  Grain Coarsening ......................................... 105
     5.4.1  Theories of Grain Coarsening ...................... 106
     5.4.2  Factors Affecting Grain Growth .................... 106
     Literature ............................................... 108

CHAPTER 6  Alternative Deformation Mechanisms ................. 111
6.1  Introduction ............................................. 111
6.2  Deformation Mechanism Maps ............................... 111
6.3  Creep .................................................... 113
     6.3.1  The Creep Curve ................................... 113
     6.3.2  Creep Mechanisms .................................. 115
     6.3.3  Influence of the Microstructure ................... 116
6.4  Grain Boundary Sliding ................................... 116
     6.4.1  GBS and Superplasticity ........................... 116
     6.4.2  Conditions for Superplasticity .................... 118
6.5  Twinning ................................................. 121
     6.5.1  Introduction ...................................... 121
     6.5.2  Twinning Mechanism ................................ 122
     6.5.3  Influence of Some Parameters on Twinning .......... 123
     6.5.4  Twinning and Deformation .......................... 124
     Literature ............................................... 126

CHAPTER 7  Phase Transformations .............................. 129
7.1  Introduction ............................................. 129
7.2  The Thermodynamic Basics ................................. 130
7.3  Nucleation and Growth-Type Transformation ................ 132
     7.3.1  Nucleation ........................................ 133
     7.3.2  Growth ............................................ 135
     7.3.3  Kinetics .......................................... 137
     7.3.4  Formation of Metastable Phases .................... 138
     7.3.5  Invariant Plane Strain Transformation ............. 140
     7.3.6  Selected Examples on Different Mechanisms and/or
            Structures ........................................ 142
7.4  Spinodal Decomposition ................................... 149

CHAPTER 8  Textural Developments During Thermo-Mechanical
Processing .................................................... 153
8.1  Introduction ............................................. 153
8.2  Graphical Representation of Texture Data ................. 154
     8.2.1  Grain Orientation ................................. 154
     8.2.2  Pole Figures ...................................... 155
     8.2.3  Inverse Pole Figures .............................. 157
     8.2.4  Orientation Distribution Functions ................ 159
8.3  Some Important Cold Deformation Textures ................. 165
     8.3.1  Introduction ...................................... 165
     8.3.2  Axisymmetric Deformation .......................... 166
     8.3.3  Plane Strain Deformation of fee Materials ......... 168
     8.3.4  Plane Strain Deformation of bec Materials ......... 172
     8.3.5  Plane Strain Deformation of Hexagonal Materials ... 172
8.4  Recrystallization Textures ............................... 174
     8.4.1  Introduction ...................................... 174
     8.4.2  Oriented Nucleation or Oriented Growth: Half
            a Century of Discussions .......................... 175
     8.4.3  Some Important Recrystallization Textures in
            Rolled fee Metals ................................. 176
     8.4.4  Some Important Recrystallization Textures in
            Rolled bec Metals ................................. 179
8.5  Textures in Hot Deformed Materials ....................... 180
     8.5.1  Introduction ...................................... 180
     8.5.2  Hot Deformation Textures in Al Alloys ............. 181
     8.5.3  Transformation Textures in Steel .................. 181
     Literature ............................................... 183

CHAPTER 9  Residual Stress .................................... 187
9.1  Introduction ............................................. 187
9.2  Types of Residual Stress ................................. 188
9.3  Continuum Approach to Residual Stress .................... 189
9.4  Origin of Residual Stress ................................ 190
9.5  Residual Stress Measurements ............................. 192
9.6  Micro-Stress Analysis - A Tool for Estimating
     Dislocation Densities .................................... 197
9.7  Residual Stress and Crystallographic Texture ............. 199
     Literature ............................................... 201

CHAPTER 10 Modelling .......................................... 205
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 205
10.2 Deformation Textures ..................................... 206
     10.2.1 Principles of Deformation Texture Formation ....... 207
     10.2.2 Simulated Deformation Textures .................... 214
     10.3 Recovery and Recrystallization ...................... 215
     10.3.1 General Transformation Kinetics ................... 218
     10.3.2 Recovery Kinetics ................................. 221
     10.3.3  Recrystallization ................................ 223
     Literature ............................................... 231

PART II: TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 11 Forming Techniques ................................. 237
11.1 General Introduction ..................................... 237
     11.1.1 Friction and Lubrication .......................... 237
     11.1.2 TMP Furnaces ...................................... 244
     Literature ............................................... 246
11.2 Rolling .................................................. 246
     11.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 246
     11.2.2 Rolling Equipment ................................. 248
     11.2.3 Mechanics ......................................... 251
     11.2.4 Typical Rolling Schedules ......................... 258
     Literature ............................................... 262
11.3 Extrusion ................................................ 262
     11.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 262
     11.3.2 Deformation Conditions ............................ 264
     11.3.3 Steels and High Melting Temperature Alloys ........ 266
     11.3.4 Aluminium Alloys .................................. 267
     Literature ............................................... 269
11.4 Wiredrawing .............................................. 269
     11.4.1 Introduction ...................................... 269
     11.4.2 Wire Drawing Machines ............................. 270
     11.4.3 Wire Drawing Dies ................................. 271
     11.4.4 The Drawing Force ................................. 273
     11.4.5 Some Important Metallurgical Factors .............. 275
     11.4.6 Drawing of Metal Fibres ........................... 278
     Literature ............................................... 279
11.5 Forging .................................................. 279
     11.5.1 Introduction ...................................... 279
     11.5.2 Forging Equipment ................................. 280
     11.5.3 Forging Dies ...................................... 282
     11.5.4 Friction and Lubrication in Forging ............... 284
     11.5.5 Forging Optimization .............................. 284
     11.5.6 Forgability ....................................... 287
     Literature ............................................... 289
11.6 Pilgering ................................................ 289
     11.6.1 Introduction ...................................... 289
     11.6.2 Pilgering Equipment and Process ................... 291
     11.6.3 Optimization in Pilgering ......................... 295
     11.6.4 Materials Aspects ................................. 296
     Literature ............................................... 297
11.7 Sheet Metal Forming ...................................... 297
     11.7.1 Introduction ...................................... 297
     11.7.2 Plastic Anisotropy ................................ 298
     11.7.3 Forming Limit Diagrams ............................ 301
     11.7.4 Stretch Forming ................................... 304
     11.7.5 Deep Drawing ...................................... 306
     11.7.6 Bending and Folding ............................... 311
     11.7.7 Other Techniques .................................. 314
     Literature ............................................... 317
11.8 Hydroforming ............................................. 317
     11.8.1 Introduction ...................................... 317
     11.8.2 Sheet Hydroforming ................................ 318
     11.8.3 Tube Hydroforming ................................. 318
     11.8.4 Important Parameters .............................. 320
     Literature ............................................... 322
11.9 Hipping .................................................. 322
     11.9.1 Introduction ...................................... 322
     11.9.2 Densification Mechanisms .......................... 322
     11.9.3 Hipping Equipment ................................. 325
     11.9.4 Typical Applications .............................. 326
     Literature ............................................... 327
11.10 Superplastic Forming .................................... 327
     11.10.1 Technology ....................................... 327
     11.10.2 Thinning ......................................... 329
     11.10.3 Cavitation ....................................... 330
     Literature ............................................... 332

CHAPTER 12 Defects in Thermo-Mechanical Processing ............ 335
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 335
12.2 Form Defects ............................................. 336
12.3 Surface Defects .......................................... 336
     12.3.1 Deformation or Forming Process-Induced Surface
            Defects ........................................... 338
     12.3.2 Environment-Induced Surface Defects ............... 341
     12.3.3 Surface Defects Related to Coating ................ 343
12.4 Fracture-Related Defects ................................. 344
     12.4.1 Edge Cracking ..................................... 344
     12.4.2 Alligatoring ...................................... 344
     12.4.3 Central Burst ..................................... 346
     12.4.4 Wire-Drawing Split ................................ 346
12.5 Strain Localizations ..................................... 347
12.6 Structural Defects ....................................... 348
     Literature ............................................... 348

CHAPTER 13 Physical Simulation of Properties .................. 351
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 351
13.2 Tensile Testing .......................................... 352
13.3 Hot Torsion Tests ........................................ 352
13.4 Compression Tests ........................................ 355
     13.4.1 Uniaxial Compression .............................. 355
     13.4.2 Plane Strain Compression .......................... 357
13.5 Mixed Strain Path Tests .................................. 361
     13.5.1 Lab-Scale Tests ................................... 361
     13.5.2 Downgrading of Industrial Processes ............... 361
13.6 Typical Sheet Formability Tests .......................... 362
     13.6.1 Bending ........................................... 363

PART III: CASE STUDIES

CHAPTER 14 Thermo-Mechanical Processing of Aluminium Alloys ... 367
14.1 Aluminium Beverage Cans .................................. 367
     14.1.1 Introduction ...................................... 367
     14.1.2 The Production of a Beverage Can .................. 369
     14.1.3 The Production of Can Body Sheet .................. 375
     14.1.4 Recycling ......................................... 382
     14.1.5 An Alternative Material: Steel .................... 385
14.2 Aluminium Sheets for Capacitor Foils ..................... 385
     14.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 385
     14.2.2 Capacitor Requirements ............................ 386
     14.2.3 The Process ....................................... 388
     14.2.4 Cube Texture Control Mechanisms ................... 389
14.3 Aluninium Matrix Composites .............................. 390
     14.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 390
     14.3.2 Processing ........................................ 391
     14.3.3 Hot Extrusion ..................................... 391
14.4 Thick Plates for Aerospace Applications .................. 398
     14.4.1 Introduction ...................................... 398
     14.4.2 Integral Structures ............................... 400
     14.4.3 Metallurgical Improvements through TMP ............ 400
     Acknowledgements ......................................... 404
     Literature ............................................... 404

CHAPTER 15 Thermo-Mechanical Processing of Steel .............. 407
15.1 Steel for Car Body Applications .......................... 407
     15.1.1 Introduction ...................................... 407
     15.1.2 Batch Annealed Al-Killed Low-Carbon Steel ......... 408
     15.1.3 Continuous Annealed Low-Carbon Steel .............. 411
     15.1.4 Interstitial-Free Steels .......................... 413
     15.1.5 Trend towards Higher Strength Steels .............. 414
15.2 Dual Phase and TRIP Steels ............................... 417
     15.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 417
     15.2.2 Dual Phase Steel .................................. 417
     15.2.3 TRIP Steel ........................................ 419
15.3 Controlled Rolling of HSLA Steels: Pipeline
     Applications ............................................. 425
     15.3.1 Introduction ...................................... 425
     15.3.2 Controlled Rolling ................................ 425
     15.3.3 HSLA Steel for Pipelines .......................... 428
15.4 Electrical Steels ........................................ 429
     15.4.1 Introduction ...................................... 429
     15.4.2 A Few Relevant Basics on Magnetism ................ 430
     15.4.3 Role of Chemistry ................................. 432
     15.4.4 Role of Crystallographic Texture, Stress and
            Grain Size ........................................ 434
     15.4.5 Non-Oriented Electrical Steels (CRNO) ............. 437
     15.4.6 Grain-Oriented Electrical Steels .................. 438
15.5 Patented Steel Wires - from Bridges to Radial Tyres ...... 442
     15.5.1 Introduction ...................................... 442
     15.5.2 The Patenting Process ............................. 442
     15.5.3 The Mechanical Properties ......................... 445
     Acknowledgements ......................................... 448

CHAPTER 16 Thermo-Mechanical Processing of Hexagonal Alloys ... 451
16.1 Zirconium Alloys for Nuclear Industry .................... 451
     16.1.1 Introduction ...................................... 451
     16.1.2 Zirconium and its Alloys .......................... 453
     16.1.3 Structure-Property Correlation in Zr Alloys ....... 456
     16.1.4 TMP of Zirconium Components ....................... 459
     Literature ............................................... 464
16.2 Titanium Forgings in the Aerospace Industry .............. 464
     16.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 464
     16.2.2 Some Physical Metallurgy of Ti Alloys ............. 465
     16.2.3 Hot Working Conditions ............................ 467
     16.2.4 General dЯ Alloys ................................. 468
     16.2.5 Near-a Alloys ..................................... 471
     16.2.6 Я and Near-/? Alloys .............................. 472
     Acknowledgements ......................................... 473
     Literature ............................................... 473

CHAPTER 17 New Technologies ................................... 477
17.1 Submicron Materials by Severe Plastic Deformation ........ 477
     17.1.1 Introduction ...................................... 477
     17.1.2 Geometrical Dynamic Recrystallization ............. 477
     17.1.3 Severe Plastic Deformation ........................ 479
     17.1.4 Properties of Submicron Materials Obtained by
            SPD ............................................... 485
     Literature ............................................... 488
17.2 Grain Boundary Engineering for Local Corrosion
     Resistance in Austenitic Stainless Steel ................. 488
     17.2.1 Introduction ...................................... 488
     17.2.2 Sensitization Control ............................. 488
     17.2.3 Ability to Alter Grain Boundary Nature ............ 490
     17.2.4 Sensitization and Grain Boundary Nature ........... 491
     References ............................................... 495

Index ......................................................... 519

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