Contributor contact details ................................. xi
Introduction ................................................ xv
1 Composite forming mechanisms and materials
characterisation ............................................. 1
А.С. Long and M.J. Clifford, University of Nottingham, UK
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 Intra-ply shear ......................................... 3
1.3 Axial loading ........................................... 9
1.4 Ply/tool and ply/ply friction .......................... 10
1.5 Ply bending ............................................ 12
1.6 Compaction/consolidation ............................... 14
1.7 Discussion ............................................. 19
1.8 References ............................................. 19
2 Constitute modelling for composite forming .................. 22
R. Akkerman and E.A.D. Lamers, University of Twente, The
Netherlands
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 22
2.2 Review on constitutive modelling for composite
forming ................................................ 22
2.3 Continuum based laminate modelling ..................... 29
2.4 Multilayer effects ..................................... 34
2.5 Parameter characterisation ............................. 35
2.6 Future trends .......................................... 43
2.7 References ............................................. 44
3 Finite element analysis of composite forming ................ 46
P. Boisse, INSA de Lyon, France
3.1 Introduction: finite element analyses of composite
forming, why and where? ................................ 46
3.2 The multiscale nature of composite materials and
different approaches for composite forming
simulations ............................................ 48
3.3 The continuous approach for composite forming process
analysis ............................................... 50
3.4 Discrete or mesoscopic approach ........................ 57
3.5 Semi-discrete approach ................................. 59
3.6 Multi-ply forming and re-consolidation simulations ..... 70
3.7 Conclusions ............................................ 75
3.8 References ............................................. 75
4 Virtual testing for material formability .................... 80
S.V. Lomov, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 80
4.2 Mechanical model of the internal geometry of the
relaxed state of a woven fabric ........................ 82
4.3 Model of compression of woven fabric ................... 84
4.4 Model of uniaxial and biaxial tension of woven fabric .. 89
4.5 Model of shear of woven fabric ......................... 93
4.6 Parametric description of fabric behaviour under
simultaneous shear and tension ......................... 96
4.7 Conclusions: creating input data for forming
simulations ........................................... 111
4.8 References ............................................ 112
5 Optimization of composites forming ......................... 117
W-R. Yu, Seoul National University, Korea
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 117
5.2 General aspects of optimization ....................... 118
5.3 Optimization of composite forming ..................... 126
5.4 Conclusions ........................................... 142
5.5 References ............................................ 142
6 Simulation of compression moulding to form composites ...... 144
E. Schmachtenberg, Universitбt Erlangen-Nurnberg, Germany
and К. Skrodolies, Institut fur KunststoffVerarbeitung,
Germany
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 144
6.2 Theoretical description of the simulation ............. 145
6.1 Examples of use of the simulation ..................... 161
6.4 Measurement of the material data ...................... 172
6.5 References ............................................ 174
6.6 Symbols ............................................... 175
7 Understanding composite distortion during processing ....... 177
M.R. Wisnom and К.D. Potter, University of Bristol, UK
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 177
7.2 Fundamental mechanisms causing residual stresses and
distortion ............................................ 177
7.3 Distortion in flat parts .............................. 181
7.4 Spring-in of curved parts ............................. 186
7.5 Distortion in more complex parts ...................... 192
7.6 Conclusions ........................................... 194
7.7 References ............................................ 195
8 Forming technology for composite/metal hybrids ............. 197
J. Sinke, Technical University Delft, The Netherlands
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 197
8.2 Development of composite/metal hybrids ................ 198
8.3 Properties of fibre metal laminates ................... 201
8.4 Production processes for fibre metal laminates ........ 205
8.5 Modelling of FML ...................................... 213
8.6 Conclusions ........................................... 218
8.7 References ............................................ 219
9 Forming self-reinforced polymer materials .................. 220
I.M. Ward and P.J. Hine, University of Leeds, UK and
D.E. Rilеy, Propex Fabrics, Germany
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 220
9.2 The hot compaction process ............................ 220
9.3 Commercial exploitation ............................... 224
9.4 Postforming studies ................................... 225
9.5 Key examples of commercial products ................... 232
9.6 Future developments ................................... 235
9.7 Acknowledgements ...................................... 236
9.8 References ............................................ 236
10 Forming technology for thermoset composites ................ 239
R. Patоn, Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced
Composite Structures Ltd, Australia
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 239
10.2 Practicalities of forming thermoset prepeg stacks ..... 240
10.3 Deformation mechanisms in woven fabric prepeg ......... 241
10.4 Tape prepreg .......................................... 247
10.5 Forming processes ..................................... 248
10.6 Tooling equipment ..................................... 250
10.7 Diaphagm forming tooling .............................. 251
10.8 Potential problems .................................... 252
10.9 Process capabilities .................................. 253
10.10 Future trends ........................................ 253
10.11 References ........................................... 254
11 Forming technology for thermoplastic composites ............ 256
R. Brooks, University of Nottingham, UK
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 256
11.2 Thermoplastic composite materials (TPCs) for forming .. 256
11.3 Basic principles of TPC forming technologies .......... 262
11.4 Forming methods ....................................... 264
11.5 Some recent developments .............................. 273
11.6 Conclusions ........................................... 275
11.7 References ............................................ 275
12 The use of draping simulation in composite design .......... 277
J.W. Klintworth, MSC Software Ltd, UK and А.С. Long,
University of Nottingham, UK
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 277
12.2 Zone and ply descriptions ............................. 277
12.3 Composites development process ........................ 278
12.4 Composites data exchange .............................. 281
12.5 Draping and forming simulation ........................ 282
12.6 Linking forming simulation to component design
analysis .............................................. 284
12.7 Conclusions ........................................... 291
12.8 References ............................................ 292
13 Benchmarking of composite forming modelling techniques ..... 293
J.L Gorczyca-Cole and J. Chen, University of
Massachusetts Lowell, USA and J. Caо, Northwestern
University, USA
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 293
13.2 Forming process and fabric properties ................. 295
13.3 Experimental .......................................... 297
13.4 Numerical analyses .................................... 313
13.5 Conclusions and future trends ......................... 315
13.6 Acknowledgements ...................................... 316
13.7 References and further reading ........................ 317
Index ...................................................... 318
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