Acknowledgments ................................................ ix
0 Introduction: Background, motivation and essential
definitions .................................................. 1
0.1 Remote sensing of terrestrial volcanic hot spots:
a brief history ......................................... 1
0.2 Thermal remote sensing: What it is and what we have ..... 5
0.3 Reviews to date and the value of thermal remote
sensing ................................................. 6
0.4 Thermal remote sensing of volcanic hot spots on
other planets .......................................... 10
0.5 Aim and use of this book ............................... 11
0.6 Structure and content of this book ..................... 11
0.7 Supporting material and companion texts ................ 15
0.8 Waveband definitions ................................... 16
0.9 A final note: hot spots and thermal anomalies - what
do we mean? ............................................ 16
Part I Introduction and underlying principles ................. 19
1 History of thermal remote sensing of active volcanism ....... 21
1.1 Nimbus, Surtsey and subsequent work .................... 23
1.2 A history of satellite infrared sensors ................ 27
1.3 A history of the discipline ............................ 42
1.4 Ground-based and airborne sensors ...................... 54
2 Thermal remote sensing of active volcanism: principles ...... 70
2.1 The Planck Function, Wein's Displacement Law and
Stefan-Boltzmann ....................................... 70
2.2 Emissivity ............................................. 78
2.3 Atmospheric effects .................................... 90
2.4 Brightness temperature and surface temperature: how
to obtain surface temperature ......................... 109
2.5 Summation ............................................. 111
3 Satellite orbits and sensor resolution ..................... 113
3.1 Orbits and temporal resolution ........................ 113
3.2 The sensor: the basic acquisition system .............. 125
3.3 Spatial resolution .................................... 130
3.4 Spectral resolution and response ...................... 146
3.5 Selection of an appropriate sensor .................... 150
Part II Space-based volcano radiometry ....................... 153
4 The mixed pixel, the dual-band technique, heat loss
and volume flux ............................................ 155
4.1 The problem of the thermally mixed pixel .............. 155
4.2 The dual-band method .................................. 166
4.3 Three-component solutions ............................. 183
4.4 Heat flux ............................................. 212
4.5 Mass and volume ....................................... 248
5 Hot spot detection ......................................... 274
5.1 Detection by eye ...................................... 274
5.2 Detection: physical basis ............................. 275
5.3 Automated hot spot detection algorithms ............... 292
5.4 How can we detect eruption termination? ............... 317
5.5 Cool anomalies ........................................ 322
5.6 Operational volcano hot spot detection systems ........ 324
6 Mapping, classification, time series and profiles .......... 331
6.1 Hot spot maps ......................................... 331
6.2 Hot spot classification ............................... 346
6.3 Types of time series .................................. 367
6.4 Time series generation ................................ 373
6.5 Case studies .......................................... 377
6.6 Trends and smoothing .................................. 404
6.7 Spatial profiles ...................................... 407
6.8 Use of multiple platform data for validation .......... 408
6.9 Inventories: the current status of satellite remote
sensing ............................................... 410
Part III Ground-based volcano radiometry and thermography .... 411
7 Broad-band radiometers I: instrumentation and application .. 413
7.1 Detector types ........................................ 413
7.2 Broad-band radiometers: capabilities and operation .... 419
7.3 Review of radiometer measurements of volcanic
phenomena ............................................. 432
7.4 Permanent deployment .................................. 447
8 Broad-band radiometers II: data collection and
analysis principles ........................................ 453
8.1 Lava flows and lakes .................................. 453
8.2 Vents and fumarole fields ............................. 462
8.3 Explosive eruptions ................................... 475
8.4 Thermal waveforms associated with bomb-dominated
emission .............................................. 483
8.5 Slope of the waveform and velocity .................... 494
8.6 Response time and slew rate ........................... 495
8.7 Radiometers versus imagers ............................ 498
9 Broad-band thermal imaging cameras ......................... 500
9.1 Thermal camera: general texts ......................... 500
9.2 The hand-held thermal camera .......................... 501
9.3 Thermal camera applications in volcanology: history
and classification .................................... 527
9.4 Measurement principles ................................ 539
9.5 Deployment principles: making the measurement ......... 577
9.6 Methodologies ......................................... 584
9.7 Methodologies II: temperature measurements ............ 591
9.8 Methodologies III: dimensional and volume/mass
measurements .......................................... 606
9.9 Surveillance and monitoring ........................... 623
9.10 Endnote ............................................... 625
Appendix A Collation and summary of satellite-volcano
radiometry: a literature data base ......................... 627
Appendix В Estimation of solar zenith angle and
contribution of reflected radiation to at-satellite
radiance ................................................... 639
Appendix С TM-class sensors .................................. 646
Appendix D AVHRR-class sensors ............................... 651
Appendix E GOES-class sensors ................................ 661
Appendix F Scan and satellite location geometry .............. 666
Appendix G Automated volcano hot spot detection: worked
example ........................................... 669
Appendix H Optical pyrometers ................................ 680
Appendix I Thermal camera options ............................ 684
References .................................................... 688
Index ......................................................... 717
Electronic supplements - available at www.cambridge.org/radiometry
ES1 Detection capabilities of thermal sensors
ES2 Calibration
ES3 Surface temperature retrieval
ES4 Notes on application of emissivity, atmospheric and surface
reflection corrections
ES5 The dual-band method: A history of its application to
volcanic hot spots
ES6 The dual-band method: worked examples
ES7 Conversion from spectral radiance to lava area, heat flux
and discharge rate
ES8 Fire detection algorithms, 1985-1995
ES9 Fixed threshold algorithms used for volcano hot spot
detection
ES10 Image sharpening and density slicing: An example using
an A VHRR image
ES11 Etna 2008-2010 eruption: MODIS-derived time series data
Color plate section is found between pages 410 and 411
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