 | Kakaç S. Heat exchangers: selection, rating, and thermal design / S.Kakaç, H.Liu, A.Pramuanjaroenkij. - 3rd ed. - Boca Raton: CRC/Taylor & Francis, 2012. - xvi, 615 p.: ill. - (Mechanical engineering). - Пер. загл.: Теплообменники: выбор, рейтинг и тепловой расчет. - ISBN 978-1-4398-4990-3
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Preface ...................................................... xiii
1 Classification of Heat Exchangers .......................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Recuperation and Regeneration .............................. 1
1.3 Transfer Processes ......................................... 6
1.4 Geometry of Construction ................................... 8
1.4.1 Tubular Heat Exchangers ............................. 8
1.4.1.1 Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers ................ 8
1.4.1.2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers ............. 9
1.4.1.3 Spiral-Tube-Type Heat Exchangers .......... 12
1.4.2 Plate Heat Exchangers .............................. 12
1.4.2.1 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers ............ 12
1.4.2.2 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers .............. 14
1.4.2.3 Lamella Heat Exchangers ................... 15
1.4.3 Extended Surface Heat Exchangers ................... 17
1.4.3.1 Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger .................. 17
1.4.3.2 Tubular-Fin Heat Exchangers ............... 18
1.5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms .................................. 23
1.6 Flow Arrangements ......................................... 24
1.7 Applications .............................................. 25
1.8 Selection of Heat Exchangers .............................. 26
References ................................................ 30
2 Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchangers ................... 33
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 33
2.2 Arrangement of Flow Paths in Heat Exchangers .............. 33
2.3 Basic Equations in Design ................................. 35
2.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ......................... 37
2.5 LMTD Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis ................... 43
2.5.1 Parallel- and Counterflow Heat Exchangers .......... 43
2.5.2 Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers ............ 47
2.6 The e-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Analysis .............. 56
2.7 Heat Exchanger Design Calculation ......................... 66
2.8 Variable Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ................ 67
2.9 Heat Exchanger Design Methodology ......................... 70
Nomenclature .............................................. 73
References ................................................ 78
3 Forced Convection Correlations for the Single-Phase Side
of 4 Heat Exchangers ...................................... 81
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 81
3.2 Laminar Forced Convection ................................. 84
3.2.1 Hydrodynamically Developed and Thermally I
Developing Laminar Flow in Smooth Circular Ducts ... 84
3.2.2 Simultaneously Developing Laminar Flow in 5-1
Smooth Ducts ....................................... 85
3.2.3 Laminar Flow through Concentric Annular
Smooth Ducts ....................................... 86
3.3 Effect of Variable Physical Properties .................... 88
3.3.1 Laminar Flow of Liquids ............................ 90
3.3.2 Laminar Flow of Gases .............................. 92
3.4 Turbulent Forced Convection ............................... 93
3.5 Turbulent Flow in Smooth Straight Noncircular Ducts ....... 99
3.6 Effect of Variable Physical Properties in Turbulent
Forced Convection ........................................ 103
3.6.1 Turbulent Liquid Flow in Ducts .................... 103
3.6.2 Turbulent Gas Flow in Ducts ....................... 104
3.7 Summary of Forced Convection in Straight Ducts ........... 107
3.8 Heat Transfer from Smooth-Tube Bundles ................... 111
3.9 Heat Transfer in Helical Coils and Spirals ............... 114
3.9.1 Nusselt Numbers of Helical Coils - Laminar Flow ... 116
3.9.2 Nusselt Numbers for Spiral Coils - Laminar Flow ... 117
3.9.3 Nusselt Numbers for Helical Coils - Turbulent
Flow .............................................. 117
3.10 Heat Transfer in Bends ................................... 118
3.10.1 Heat Transfer in 90° Bends ........................ 118
3.10.2 Heat Transfer in 180° Bends ....................... 119
Nomenclature ............................................. 120
References ............................................... 125
4 Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop and Pumping Power ........... 129
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 129
4.2 Tube-Side Pressure Drop .................................. 129
4.2.1 Circular Cross-Sectional Tubes .................... 129
4.2.2 Noncircular Cross-Sectional Ducts ................. 132
4.3 Pressure Drop in Tube Bundles in Crossflow ............... 135
4.4 Pressure Drop in Helical and Spiral Coils ................ 137
4.4.1 Helical Coils - Laminar Flow ...................... 138
4.4.2 Spiral Coils - Laminar Flow ....................... 138
4.4.3 Helical Coils - Turbulent Flow .................... 139
4.4.4 Spiral Coils - Turbulent Flow ..................... 139
4.5 Pressure Drop in Bends and Fittings ...................... 140
4.5.1 Pressure Drop in Bends ............................ 140
4.5.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings ......................... 142
4.5.1 Pressure Drop for Abrupt Contraction, Expansion,
and Momentum Change ............................... 147
4.7 Heat Transfer and Pumping Power Relationship ............. 148
Nomenclature ............................................. 150
References ............................................... 155
5 Micro/Nano Heat Transfer ................................. 157
5.1 PART A - Heat Transfer for Gaseous and Liquid Flow in
Microchannels ............................................ 157
5.1.1 Introduction of Heat Transfer in Microchannels .... 157
5.1.2 Fundamentals of Gaseous Flow in Microchannels ..... 158
5.1.2.1 Knudsen Number ........................... 158
5.1.2.2 Velocity Slip ............................ 160
5.1.2.3 Temperature Jump ......................... 160
5.1.2.4 Brinkman Number .......................... 161
5.1.3 Engineering Applications for Gas Flow ............. 163
5.1.3.1 Heat Transfer in Gas Flow ................ 165
5.1.3.2 Friction Factor .......................... 169
5.1.3.3 Laminar to Turbulent Transition Regime ... 173
5.1.4 Engineering Applications of Single-Phase Liquid
Flow in Microchannels ............................. 177
5.1.4.1 Nusselt Number and Friction Factor
Correlations for Single-Phase Liquid
Flow ..................................... 179
5.1.4.2 Roughness Effect on Friction Factor ...... 185
5.2 PART В - Single-Phase Convective Heat Transfer with
Nanofluids ............................................... 186
5.2.1 Introduction of Convective Heat Transfer with
Nanofluids ........................................ 186
5.2.1.1 Particle Materials and Base Fluids ....... 187
5.2.1.2 Particle Size and Shape .................. 187
5.2.1.3 Nanofluid Preparation Methods ............ 188
5.2.2 Thermal Conductivity of Nanofluids ................ 188
5.2.2.1 Classical Models ......................... 189
5.2.2.2 Brownian Motion of Nanoparticles ......... 191
5.2.2.3 Clustering of Nanoparticles .............. 193
5.2.2.4 Liquid Layering around Nanoparticles ..... 196
5.2.3 Thermal Conductivity Experimental Studies of
Nanofluids ........................................ 203
5.2.4 Convective Heat Trasfer of Nanofluids ............. 207
5.2.5 Analysis of Convective Heat Transfer of
Nanofluids ........................................ 212
5.2.5.1 Constant Wall Heat Flux Boundary
Condition ................................ 212
5.2.5.2 Constant Wall Temperature Boundary
Condition ................................ 214
5.2.6 Experimental Correlations of Convective Heat
Transfer of Nanofluids ............................ 216
Nomenclature ...................................... 224
References ........................................ 228
6 Fouling of Heat Exchangers ............................... 237
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 237
6.2 Basic Considerations ..................................... 237
6.3 Effects of Fouling ....................................... 239
6.3.1 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer ................ 240
6.3.2 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop ................ 241
6.3.3 Cost of Fouling ................................... 243
6.4 Aspects of Fouling ....................................... 244
6.4.1 Categories of Fouling ............................. 244
6.4.1.1 Particulate Fouling ...................... 244
6.4.1.2 Crystallization Fouling .................. 245
6.4.1.3 Corrosion Fouling ........................ 245
6.4.1.4 Biofouling ............................... 245
6.4.1.5 Chemical Reaction Fouling ................ 246
6.4.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling .................. 246
6.4.2.1 Initiation ............................... 246
6.4.2.2 Transport ................................ 246
6.4.2.3 Attachment ............................... 247
6.4.2.4 Removal .................................. 247
6.4.2.5 Aging .................................... 248
6.4.3 Prediction of Fouling ............................. 248
6.5 Design of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling ............. 250
6.5.1 Fouling Resistance ................................ 250
6.5.2 Cleanliness Factor ................................ 256
6.5.3 Percent over Surface .............................. 257
6.5.3.1 Cleanliness Factor ....................... 260
6.5.3.2 Percent over Surface ..................... 260
6.6 Operations of Heat Exchangers Subject to Fouling ......... 262
6.7 Techniques to Control Fouling ............................ 264
6.7.1 Surface Cleaning Techniques ....................... 264
6.7.1.1 Continuous Cleaning ...................... 264
6.7.1.2 Periodic Cleaning ........................ 264
6.7.2 Additives ......................................... 265
6.7.2.1 Crystallization Fouling .................. 265
6.7.2.2 Particulate Fouling ...................... 266
6.7.2.3 Biological Fouling ....................... 266
6.7.2.4 Corrosion Fouling ........................ 266
Nomenclature ............................................. 266
References ............................................... 270
7 Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers .............................. 273
7.1 Introduction ............................................. 273
7.2 Thermal and Hydraulic Design of Inner Tube ............... 276
7.3 Thermal and Hydraulic Analysis of Annulus ................ 278
7.3.1 Hairpin Heat Exchanger with Bare Inner Tube ....... 278
7.3.2 Hairpin Heat Exchangers with Multitube Finned
Inner Tubes ....................................... 283
7.4 Parallel-Series Arrangements of Hairpins ................. 291
7.5 Total Pressure Drop ...................................... 294
7.6 Design and Operational Features .......................... 295
Nomenclature ............................................. 297
References ............................................... 304
8 Design Correlations for Condensers and Evaporators ....... 307
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 307
8.2 Condensation ............................................. 307
8.3 Film Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube ............ 308
8.3.1 Laminar Film Condensation ......................... 308
8.3.2 Forced Convection ................................. 309
8.4 Film Condensation in Tube Bundles ........................ 312
8.4.1 Effect of Condensate Inundation ................... 313
8.4.2 Effect of Vapor Shear ............................. 317
8.4.3 Combined Effects of Inundation and Vapor Shear .... 317
8.5 Condensation inside Tubes ................................ 322
8.5.1 Condensation inside Horizontal Tubes .............. 322
8.5.2 Condensation inside Vertical Tubes ................ 327
8.6 Flow Boiling ............................................. 329
8.6.1 Subcooled Boiling ................................. 329
8.6.2 Flow Pattern ...................................... 331
8.6.3 Flow Boiling Correlations ......................... 334
Nomenclature ............................................. 353
References ............................................... 356
9 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers ........................... 361
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 361
9.2 Basic Components ......................................... 361
9.2.1 Shell Types ....................................... 361
9.2.2 Tube Bundle Types ................................. 364
9.2.3 Tubes and Tube Passes ............................. 366
9.2.4 Tube Layout ....................................... 368
9.2.5 Baffle Type and Geometry .......................... 371
9.2.6 Allocation of Streams ............................. 376
9.3 Basic Design Procedure of a Heat Exchanger ............... 378
9.3.1 Preliminary Estimation of Unit Size ............... 380
9.3.2 Rating of the Preliminary Design .................. 386
9.4 Shell-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop ............... 387
9.4.1 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Coefficient .............. 387
9.4.2 Shell-Side Pressure Drop .......................... 389
9.4.3 Tube-Side Pressure Drop ........................... 390
9.4.4 Bell-Delaware Method .............................. 395
9.4.4.1 Shell-Side Heat Transfer Coefficient ..... 396
9.4.4.2 Shell-Side Pressure Drop ................. 407
Nomenclature ............................................. 419
References ............................................... 425
10 Compact Heat Exchangers .................................. 427
10.1 Introduction ............................................. 427
10.1.1 Heat Transfer Enhancement ......................... 427
10.1.2 Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers ......................... 431
10.1.3 Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers .......................... 431
10.2 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop ......................... 433
10.2.1 Heat Transfer .................................... 433
10.2.2 Pressure Drop for Finned-Tube Exchangers ......... 441
10.2.3 Pressure Drop for Plate-Fin Exchangers ........... 441
Nomenclature ............................................. 446
References ............................................... 449
11 Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchangers ........................... 451
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 451
11.2 Mechanical Features ...................................... 451
11.2.1 Plate Pack and the Frame .......................... 453
11.2.2 Plate Types ....................................... 455
11.3 Operational Characteristics .............................. 457
11.3.1 Main Advantages ................................... 457
11.3.2 Performance Limits ................................ 459
11.4 Passes and Flow Arrangements ............................. 460
11.5 Applications ............................................. 461
11.5.1 Corrosion ......................................... 462
11.5.2 Maintenance ....................................... 465
11.6 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Calculations ............. 466
11.6.1 Heat Transfer Area ................................ 466
11.6.2 Mean Flow Channel Gap ............................. 467
11.6.3 Channel Hydraulic Diameter ........................ 468
11.6.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient ......................... 468
11.6.5 Channel Pressure Drop ............................. 474
11.6.6 Port Pressure Drop ................................ 474
11.6.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ................. 475
11.6.8 Heat Transfer Surface Area ........................ 475
11.6.9 Performance Analysis .............................. 476
11.7 Thermal Performance ...................................... 481
Nomenclature ............................................. 484
References ............................................... 488
12 Condensers and Evaporators ............................... 491
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 491
12.2 Shell and Tube Condensers ................................ 492
12.2.1 Horizontal Shell-Side Condensers .................. 492
12.2.2 Vertical Shell-Side Condensers .................... 495
12.2.3 Vertical Tube-Side Condensers ..................... 495
12.2.4 Horizontal in-Tube Condensers ..................... 497
12.3 Steam Turbine Exhaust Condensers ......................... 500
12.4 Plate Condensers ......................................... 501
12.5 Air-Cooled Condensers .................................... 502
12.6 Direct Contact Condensers ................................ 503
12.7 Thermal Design of Shell-and-Tube Condensers .............. 504
12.8 Design and Operational Considerations .................... 515
12.9 Condensers for Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning ........ 516
12.9.1 Water-Cooled Condensers ........................... 518
12.9.2 Air-Cooled Condensers ............................. 519
12.9.3 Evaporative Condensers ............................ 519
12.10 Evaporators for Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning ...... 522
12.10.1 Water-Cooling Evaporators (Chillers) ............. 522
12.10.2 Air-Cooling Evaporators (Air Coolers) ............ 523
12.11 Thermal Analysis ........................................ 525
12.11.1 Shah Correlation ................................. 526
12.11.2 Kandlikar Correlation ............................ 528
12.11.3 Güngür and Winterton Correlation ................. 529
12.12 Standards for Evaporators and Condensers ................ 531
Nomenclature ............................................. 536
References ............................................... 540
13 Polymer Heat Exchangers .................................. 543
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 543
13.2 Polymer Matrix Composite Materials (PMC) ............ 547
13.3 Nanocomposites ...................................... 551
13.4 Application of Polymers in Heat Exchangers .......... 552
13.5 Polymer Compact Heat Exchangers ..................... 563
13.6 Potential Applications for Polymer Film Compact
Heat Exchangers ..................................... 567
13.7 Thermal Design of Polymer Heat Exchangers ........... 570
References ............................................... 573
Appendix A .................................................... 577
Appendix В .................................................... 583
Index ......................................................... 607
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