Preface ........................................................ xi
1 Synthesis, Processing, and Application of Nanostructures ... 1
1.1 Introduction to Nanotechnology ............................. 1
1.2 History of Nanotechnology .................................. 2
1.3 What Is a Nanomaterial? .................................... 3
1.4 Properties of Nanostructured Materials ..................... 6
1.4.1 Physical Properties ................................. 9
1.4.1.1 Diffusion Coefficient ...................... 9
1.4.1.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient ............. 12
1.4.1.3 Electrical Resistance ..................... 14
1.4.1.4 Solubility of Alloy Elements .............. 15
1.4.1.5 Magnetic Properties ....................... 15
1.4.1.6 Corrosion Resistance ...................... 17
1.4.1.7 Hydrogen Capacitance Properties ........... 18
1.4.2 Mechanical Properties .............................. 18
1.4.2.1 Elastic Properties ........................ 19
1.4.2.2 Plastic Properties ........................ 20
1.4.2.3 Superplasticity ........................... 27
1.5 Thermal Stability of Nanostructures ....................... 31
1.6 Nanotechnology and Future Perspectives .................... 36
1.7 Some Applications of Nanostructures ....................... 38
1.7.1 Nanoelectronic and Molecular Electronic ............ 38
1.7.2 Nanorobots ......................................... 38
1.7.3 Biological Applications ............................ 38
1.7.4 Catalytic Applications ............................. 39
References ................................................ 39
2 Classification of Two-Dimensional Nanostructures .......... 51
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 51
2.2 Various Methods for Production of Nanostructures .......... 51
2.2.1 Producing Nanoparticles by the Sol-Gel Process ..... 52
2.2.2 Production of Nanoparticles by the Chemical
Deposition Method .................................. 52
2.2.3 Production of Nanoparticles by the Hydrothermal
Method ............................................. 53
2.2.4 Production of Nanoparticles by the Pyrolysis
Method ............................................. 53
2.2.5 Production of Nanoparticles by Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD) ................................... 54
2.2.6 Solid-State Processes .............................. 54
2.2.7 Advanced Methods ................................... 54
2.3 Physical and Chemical Analysis of Nanoparticles ........... 55
2.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) ............................ 55
2.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) ................. 56
2.3.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (ТЕМ) ............. 56
2.3.4 Optical Spectrometry ............................... 56
2.3.5 Ultraviolet (UV)-Visible Spectroscopy .............. 57
2.3.6 Fluorescence ....................................... 57
2.3.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) ..... 57
2.4 Different Forms of Growth ................................. 58
2.5 Relation between Growth and Energy Level .................. 59
2.6 Overaturation Effect on Growth ............................ 60
2.7 Quantitative Description of Initial Stages of Film
Growth .................................................... 62
2.7.1 Volmer-Weber Theory ................................ 62
2.7.2 Three-Dimensional (3D) Island Growth ............... 62
2.7.3 Two-Dimensional (2D) Film Growth ................... 63
2.8 Kinetic Theory of Growth .................................. 64
2.9 Orientation of Thin Films ................................. 67
2.10 Film Growth with a Certain Orientation .................... 68
2.11 Film-Substrate Interfaces ................................. 69
2.11.1 Abrupt Interface (Single Layer on Single Layer) .... 69
2.11.2 Interface with Chemical Bond ....................... 69
2.11.3 Distributed Film-Substrate Interfaces .............. 69
2.11.4 Semidistribution Film-Material Interface ........... 70
2.11.5 Mechanical Film-Substrate Interface ................ 71
References ................................................ 71
3 Characterization and Fabrication Methods of Two-
Dimensional Nanostructures ................................ 81
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 81
3.2 Silicon (Si) .............................................. 82
3.3 Dimer-Adatom-Stacking Fault (DAS) Model ................... 83
3.4 Auger Electron Spectrometry (AES) ......................... 84
3.5 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED) Technique .......... 85
3.6 X-Ray Phototransmission Spectrometry ...................... 85
3.7 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Methods ................... 86
3.7.1 Thermal Evaporation ................................ 86
3.7.2 Evaporation Sources ................................ 87
3.7.2.1 Resistive Heating ......................... 88
3.7.2.2 Flash Evaporation ......................... 88
3.7.2.3 Arc Evaporation ........................... 89
3.7.2.4 Laser Evaporation ......................... 91
3.7.2.5 Application of Electron Bombardment ....... 92
3.7.2.6 Evaporation through Radio Frequency
(RF) Heating ............................... 93
3.7.3 Sputtering Method .................................. 93
3.7.3.1 Reactive and Nonreactive Processes ........ 93
3.7.3.2 Diode Sputtering .......................... 94
3.7.3.3 RF Sputtering ............................. 94
3.7.3.4 Triode Sputtering ......................... 95
3.7.3.5 Magnetron Sputtering ...................... 96
3.7.3.6 Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering ........... 98
3.8 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) .......................... 101
3.8.1 Introduction ...................................... 101
3.8.2 CVD System Requirements ........................... 105
3.8.2.1 Gas Distribution System .................. 105
3.8.2.2 CVD Reactors ............................. 105
3.8.3 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition
(PACVD) ........................................... 109
3.8.3.1 Analysis of Physical and Chemical
Aspects of Electrical Discharge .......... 109
3.8.3.2 Main Processes of Plasma Medium .......... 112
3.8.3.3 Kinetic and Thermodynamic Factors ........ 113
3.8.3.4 Interactions between Plasma and Surface .. 115
3.8.4 Discharge System .................................. 117
3.8.5 Advantages of the CVD Method ...................... 117
3.8.6 Limitations and Disadvantages of CVD .............. 118
3.9 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) ............................. 119
3.9.1 Ultrahigh (UHV) System ............................ 119
3.9.2 Substrate Heater and Preserver .................... 121
3.9.3 Source Cell for MBE ............................... 121
3.10 Ion Beam Assisted Film Deposition ........................ 122
3.10.1 Partially Ionized Molecular Beam Epitaxy
(PI-MBE) .......................................... 122
3.10.2 Implant-Epitaxy Rig ............................... 123
3.10.3 IVD Technique ..................................... 124
3.10.4 Double Ionic Beam (DIB) Technique ................. 126
3.10.5 Ionized Cluster Beam (ICB) ........................ 127
3.10.5.1 Physical Process ......................... 127
3.10.5.2 ICB Rig .................................. 127
3.10.5.3 ICB Advantages and Specifications ........ 127
3.11 Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) ....................... 129
3.12 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD) ...................... 130
References ............................................... 135
4 Mechanical Fabrication/Properties of Two-Dimensional
Nanostructures ........................................... 141
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 141
4.2 Multiple-Layer Coatings .................................. 142
4.3 Fabrication Methods of Multiple-Layer Coatings ........... 144
4.3.1 Multiple-Layer Electrodeposition Using a Single
Bath .............................................. 147
4.3.2 Mechanical Cleavage for Synthesis of Graphene
Layers ............................................ l49
4.3.3 Chemomechanical Synthesis of Thin Films ........... 150
4.3.1 Conten
4.3.3.1 HgxCd1-xSe Thin Films ..................... 150
4.3.3.2 Cd1-xZnxSe Thin Films ..................... 154
4.3.4 Achieving Enhanced Mechanical Properties ......... 157
4.4 Examining the Characteristics of the Multiple-Layer
Coatings ................................................. 161
4.4.1 Mechanical Properties of the Multiple-Layer
Nanostructures .................................... 161
4.4.2 Strengthening Theories in Multiple-Layer Systems .. 162
4.4.2.1 Orowan Mechanism ......................... 162
4.4.2.2 Hall-Patch Mechanism ..................... 162
4.4.2.3 Reinforcing by Virtual Forces ............ 163
4.4.3 An Example from Cubic Boron Nitride Thin Films .... 164
4.4.4 The Effect of the Supermodule in Multilayer
Systems ........................................... 169
4.4.5 Tribological Behavior of the Multilayer Coatings .. 170
4.5 Examples of Mechanical Affected Properties of Two-
Dimensional Nanostructures ............................... 172
4.5.1 TiN/CrN Nanomultilayer Thin Film .................. 172
4.5.2 Mechanical Properties of Thin Films Using
Indentation Techniques ............................ 175
4.5.3 Nanostructured Carbon Nitride Thin Films .......... 177
4.5.4 Au-TiOz Nanocomposite Thin Films .................. 179
4.5.5 Effect of Internal Stress on the Mechanical
Property of Thin CNX Films ........................ 181
References ............................................... 185
5 Chemical/Electrochemical Fabrication/Properties of
Two-Dimensional Nanostructures ........................... 191
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 191
5.2 History .................................................. 191
5.3 Direct Writing of Metal Nanostructures ................... 193
5.4 Theory and Thermodynamic Method of Codeposition .......... 196
5.4.1 Nucleation ........................................ 196
5.4.2 Growth ............................................ 199
5.4.3 Ostwald Ripening .................................. 200
5.4.4 Final Growth and Formation of Stable
Nanoparticles ..................................... 201
5.5 Phase Transition of Two-Dimensional Nanostructure by
Electrochemical Potential ................................ 206
5.6 Procurement of Nanomaterials through Deposition .......... 210
5.6.1 Procurement of Metals from Aqueous Solutions ...... 210
5.6.2 Deposition of Metals by Reduction of Nonaqueous
Solutions ......................................... 213
5.6.3 Deposition of Oxides from Aqueous Solutions ....... 219
5.6.4 Deposition of Oxides from Nonaqueous Solutions .... 222
5.6.5 Nanoimprint Lithography for Fabrication of
Plasmonic Arrays .................................. 223
5.7 Conclusion ............................................... 228
References ............................................... 229
6 Physical and Other Fabrication/Properties of Two-
Dimensional Nanostructures ............................... 235
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 235
6.2 Concepts of Nanostructured Thin Films .................... 235
6.3 Important Physical Fabrication Methods ................... 239
6.3.1 Excimer Laser ..................................... 239
6.3.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) ...................... 239
6.3.3 Ion Implantation .................................. 240
6.3.4 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) in Nanotechnology .......... 241
6.3.5 FIB-SEM Dual Beam System .......................... 241
6.3.6 Langmuir-Blodgett Film (LBF) ...................... 242
6.3.7 Electrospinning ................................... 243
6.4 Specification of Sculptured Thin Films ................... 243
6.5 Phase, Length, and Time Sandwich ......................... 248
6.6 A Model to Make a Relation between Features and
Structures of Dielectric Helicoidal Sculptured Thin
Films .................................................... 257
6.7 Analysis of Precise Couple Wave for the Incident
Transverse Wave .......................................... 266
6.8 Physical Principles and Applications of Different
Fabrication Methods ...................................... 274
6.8.1 Excimer Laser ..................................... 274
6.8.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) ...................... 275
6.8.3 Ion Implantation .................................. 277
6.8.3.1 Doping ................................... 278
6.8.3.2 Mesotaxy ................................. 279
6.8.3.3 Surface Operations ....................... 279
6.8.3.4 Amorphous Fabrication .................... 280
6.8.4 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) in Nanotechnology .......... 280
6.8.5 FIB-SEM Dual Beam System .......................... 281
6.8.6 Langmuir-Blodgett Film (LBF) ...................... 281
6.8.7 Electrospinning ................................... 282
References ............................................... 283
Index ......................................................... 293
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