Preface ........................................................ ix
Acronyms ..................................................... xiii
1 Introduction to Cognitive Approaches in Wireless Sensor
Networks ..................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.1.1 Application Layer Requirements ................... 3
1.1.2 Physical Layer Constraints and Requirements ...... 4
1.1.3 Network Status Sensors ........................... 4
1.2 Related Work ............................................ 5
1.2.1 Knowledge Plane and Cognitive Networks ........... 6
1.2.2 Cognitive Techniques Used in Sensor Networks ..... 8
1.3 A Generic Architecture for Cognitive Wireless Sensor
Networks ............................................... 12
1.3.1 ZigBee Stack .................................... 15
1.3.2 Network Status Sensors .......................... 15
1.3.3 Inputs from the Physical Layer .................. 15
1.3.4 Change Monitoring Engine ........................ 16
1.3.5 Knowledge Base .................................. 16
1.3.6 Cognitive Decision-Making Engine ................ 17
1.3.7 Optimization Engine ............................. 18
1.3.8 Interaction among the Cognitive Components ...... 18
1.4 Conclusion ............................................. 20
References .................................................. 21
2 Cognitive Radio Networks and Dynamic Spectrum Access ........ 23
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 23
2.1.1 History of Cognitive Radio ...................... 23
2.1.2 MIMO and Cooperative Diversity Techniques ....... 24
2.2 Spectrum Awareness ..................................... 26
2.2.1 Spectrum Sensing Challenges ..................... 28
2.2.2 Spectrum Sensing Methods ........................ 30
2.3 Cooperative Sensing .................................... 35
2.3.1 Narrowband Cooperative Sensing .................. 35
2.3.2 Wideband Cooperative Sensing .................... 38
2.4 Dynamic Spectrum Access ................................ 39
2.4.1 MIMO Systems for Spectrum Access ................ 41
2.4.2 Cooperative Spectrum Access ..................... 44
2.5 Conclusion ............................................. 46
References ............................................. 46
3 Adaptive Modulation, Adaptive Power Allocation, and
Adaptive Medium Access ...................................... 51
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 51
3.2 System Model ........................................... 53
3.2.1 Information Source and Sink ..................... 53
3.2.2 Transmitter ..................................... 53
3.2.3 Receiver ........................................ 54
3.2.4 Wireless Channel ................................ 54
3.2.5 Lognormal Shadowing Channel Model ............... 54
3.2.6 Rician Fading Channel Model ..................... 55
3.3 Adaptive Transmission and Feedback Communication
System ................................................. 55
3.3.1 Introduction .................................... 55
3.3.2 Adaptive System Design .......................... 55
3.3.3 Link Adaptations ................................ 56
3.3.4 Link Adaptation for Energy-Constrained
Networks ........................................ 57
3.3.5 Adaptive Techniques ............................. 58
3.4 Multihop Relay Network and Energy-Constrained Network
Analysis ............................................... 63
3.4.1 Energy Consumption with Adaptation Techniques ... 63
3.4.2 Single-Hop Discrete Rate Continuous Power
Adaptation ...................................... 64
3.4.3 Multihop Relay Networks ......................... 65
3.4.4 MAC Layer Adaptive Modulation and Adaptive
Sleep ........................................... 69
3.5 Simulation Examples and Illustrations .................. 73
3.5.1 Simulation Objective ............................ 73
3.5.2 Energy Optimization ............................. 74
3.5.3 Power Control Adaptation Policies ............... 88
3.5.4 Two-Link Relay Network Adaptation ............... 88
3.5.5 Performance of Commercial WSN Nodes ............. 92
3.6 Conclusions ............................................ 96
References .................................................. 97
4 Cross-Layer Approaches to QoS Routing in Wireless Multihop
Networks ................................................... 101
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 101
4.2 Design Challenges and Considerations .................. 103
4.2.1 QoS Metrics .................................... 103
4.2.2 Design Challenges .............................. 104
4.2.3 Network Resources and Performance Metrics ...... 106
4.3 Taxonomy of QoS Routing Protocols in Multihop
Networks .............................................. 108
4.3.1 QoS Routing in MANETs .......................... 108
4.3.2 QoS Routing in WMNs ............................ 114
4.3.3 QoS Routing in VANETs .......................... 117
4.3.4 QoS Routing in WSNs ............................ 123
4.3.5 Limitations to Routing Design across
Different Networks ............................. 127
4.4 Comparison between QoS Routing Protocols .............. 128
4.5 Challenges and Future Directions ...................... 133
4.6 Conclusions ........................................... 136
References ................................................. 136
5 Cognitive Diversity Routing ................................ 141
5.1 Overview of Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor
Networks .............................................. 141
5.1.1 Wireless Sensor Network Routing Protocols ...... 141
5.1.2 Energy-Aware Protocols ......................... 144
5.1.3 Diversity Routing .............................. 147
5.1.4 Cognitive Protocols ............................ 148
5.2 System Models ......................................... 149
5.2.1 The Propagation Model .......................... 150
5.2.2 Network Lifetime ............................... 151
5.3 Cognitive Diversity Routing ........................... 153
5.3.1 Cognitive Diversity Routing Methodology ........ 153
5.3.2 Implementation in OPNET Modeler 15.0 ........... 156
5.3.3 Pseudo-Code for Cognitive Diversity Routing .... 157
5.4 Priority Node Selection ............................... 161
5.5 Performance Evaluation ................................ 163
5.5.1 Grid Deployment ................................ 165
5.5.2 Deployment with Forced Path .................... 172
5.5.3 Random Deployment .............................. 174
5.5.4 Node Density and Scalability ................... 175
5.5.5 Optimization ................................... 181
5.5.6 Giving Emphasis to the Channel Profile ......... 182
5.6 Conclusion ............................................ 189
References ............................................ 190
6 Enabling Cognition through Weighted Cognitive Maps ......... 193
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 193
6.2 Related Work .......................................... 194
6.3 Fundamentals of WCM ................................... 195
6.4 Designing WCMs to Achieve Cognition in WSNs ........... 198
6.4.1 Designing a WCM for Transmit Power, Data
Rate, and Duty Cycle Adaptation ................ 199
6.4.2 Designing a WCM to Guarantee Connectivity and
Coverage ....................................... 203
6.4.3 Designing a WCM for Congestion Control ......... 205
6.4.4 End-to-End Goal and the Overall WCM ............ 207
6.5 Simulation Results .................................... 209
6.5.1 Evaluation Using Uniform Random Topology ...... 210
6.5.2 Evaluation Using Bottleneck Paths .............. 214
6.5.3 Complexity of the System ....................... 216
6.6 Conclusions ........................................... 218
References ................................................. 218
7 Hardware Architecture for GPS/INS-Enabled Wireless Sensor
Networks ................................................... 221
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 221
7.2 Hardware Implementation ............................... 224
7.2.1 GPS and INS Data Acquisition ................... 224
7.2.2 Navigation Data Processing ..................... 225
7.2.3 Power Management MCU ........................... 226
7.2.4 Wireless Radio Frequency Transceiver ........... 226
7.2.5 Power Supply ................................... 227
7.3 System Software Design ................................ 228
7.3.1 System Initialization .......................... 228
7.3.2 System Power Management ........................ 230
7.3.3 DSP Memory Allocation .......................... 231
7.3.4 ZigBee Node Software Design .................... 232
7.4 Test Results .......................................... 234
7.4.1 Equipment and Setup ............................ 234
7.4.2 Real-Time Performance Analysis ................. 236
7.4.3 Random Error Modeling .......................... 237
7.4.4 Open Field Tests ............................... 239
7.5 Conclusion ............................................ 244
References ................................................. 245
Index ......................................................... 247
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