 | Rees W.G. Remote sensing of snow and ice. - Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis/CRC Press, 2006. - xix, 285 p., [16] p. of plates: ill. (some col.), maps. - Bibliogr.: p.239-276. - Ind.: p.277-285. - ISBN 0-415-29831-8
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Chapter 1 The Cryosphere ....................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Snow Cover ................................................. 1
1.3 Ice Sheets and Glaciers .................................... 4
1.4 Icebergs .................................................. 11
1.5 Sea Ice ................................................... 14
1.6 Freshwater Ice ............................................ 19
1.7 Permafrost ................................................ 21
Chapter 2 Remote Sensing Systems for Observation of the
Earth's Surface ................................................ 23
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 23
2.2 Aerial Photography ........................................ 26
2.2.1 Photographic Film .................................. 26
2.2.2 Lens Optics ........................................ 28
2.2.3 Geometries of Aerial Photography ................... 29
2.2.4 Mapping, Relief, and Stereo- and Orthophotos ....... 29
2.2.5 Examples ........................................... 33
2.2.6 Summary ............................................ 34
2.3 Electro-Optical Systems in the Visible and Near-Infrared
Region .................................................... 34
2.3.1 Scanning Geometries ................................ 35
2.3.2 Spatial Resolution ................................. 36
2.3.3 Spectral Resolution ................................ 36
2.3.4 Geometry of VIR Imagers ............................ 37
2.3.5 Examples ........................................... 38
2.3.6 Summary ............................................ 39
2.4 Thermal Infrared Systems .................................. 39
2.4.1 Spatial Resolution ................................. 43
2.4.2 Spectral Resolution ................................ 44
2.4.3 Radiometric Resolution ............................. 44
2.4.4 Atmospheric Correction ............................. 44
2.4.5 Examples ........................................... 45
2.4.6 Summary ............................................ 45
2.5 Passive Microwave Systems ................................. 45
2.5.1 Spatial Resolution and Swath Width ................. 47
2.5.2 Spectral Resolution and Frequency Coverage ......... 47
2.5.3 Radiometric Resolution ............................. 48
2.5.4 Examples ........................................... 48
2.5.5 Summary ............................................ 49
2.6 Laser Profiling ........................................... 50
2.6.1 Spatial Resolution ................................. 51
2.6.2 Atmospheric Correction ............................. 53
2.6.3 Examples ........................................... 53
2.6.4 Summary ............................................ 54
2.7 Radar Altimetry ........................................... 55
2.7.1 Spatial Resolution ................................. 55
2.7.2 Information in the Waveform ........................ 58
2.7.3 Response to Slopes ................................. 58
2.7.4 Response to Abrupt Changes in Height ............... 59
2.7.5 Atmospheric Correction ............................. 60
2.7.6 Examples ........................................... 60
2.7.7 Summary ............................................ 60
2.8 Radio Echo-Sounding ....................................... 62
2.9 Imaging Radar and Scatterometry ........................... 63
2.9.1 Imaging Geometry and Spatial Resolution ............ 63
2.9.2 Distortions in Radar Imagery ....................... 66
2.9.3 Radiometric Resolution ............................. 69
2.9.4 SAR Interferometry ................................. 69
2.9.5 Examples ........................................... 71
2.9.6 Summary ............................................ 72
Chapter 3 Image Processing Techniques ......................... 75
3.1 Introduction .............................................. 75
3.2 Preprocessing ............................................. 76
3.3 Image Enhancement ......................................... 77
3.3.1 Contrast Modification .............................. 78
3.3.2 Spatial Filtering .................................. 79
3.3.3 Band Transformations ............................... 83
3.4 Image Classification ...................................... 85
3.4.1 Density-Slicing .................................... 85
3.4.2 Multispectral Classification ....................... 87
3.4.3 Texture Classification ............................. 90
3.4.4 Neural Networks .................................... 91
3.5 Detection of Geometric Features ........................... 93
3.6 Image Segmentation ........................................ 93
3.7 Change Detection .......................................... 95
Chapter 4 Physical Properties of Snow and Ice ................. 99
4.1 Introduction .............................................. 99
4.2 Snow ...................................................... 99
4.2.1 Physical Characterization .......................... 99
4.2.2 Surface Geometry .................................. 101
4.2.3 Thermal Properties of Snow ........................ 104
4.2.4 Electromagnetic Properties of Snow in the
Optical and Near-Infrared Regions ................. 105
4.2.5 Electromagnetic Properties of Snow in the Thermal
Infrared Region ................................... 108
4.2.6 Electromagnetic Properties of Snow in the
Microwave Region ..................................
4.2.7 Microwave Backscattering from Snow ................ 112
4.2.8 Microwave Emission from Snow ...................... 116
4.3 Lake and River Ice ....................................... 118
4.3.1 Physical Characterization ......................... 118
4.3.2 Electromagnetic Properties of Freshwater Ice in
the Optical and Near-Infrared Regions ............. 119
4.3.3 Thermal Infrared Emissivity of Freshwater Ice ..... 119
4.3.4 Electromagnetic Properties of Freshwater Ice in
the Microwave Region .............................. 119
4.4 Sea Ice .................................................. 121
4.4.1 Physical Characterization ......................... 121
4.4.2 Electromagnetic Properties of Sea Ice in the
Optical and Near-Infrared Regions ................. 123
4.4.3 Thermal Infrared Emissivity of Sea Ice ............ 123
4.4.4 Electromagnetic Properties of Sea Ice in the
Microwave Region .................................. 123
4.5 Glaciers ................................................. 127
4.5.1 Physical Characterization ......................... 127
4.5.2 Electromagnetic Properties of Glaciers in the
Optical and Near-Infrared Regions ................. 130
4.5.3 Thermal Infrared Emissivity of Glaciers ........... 132
4.5.4 Microwave Properties of Glaciers .................. 132
4.5.5 Transmission of VHF and UHF Radiation through
Glaciers .......................................... 133
4.6 Icebergs ................................................ 135
4.6.1 Physical Characterization ......................... 135
4.6.2 Electromagnetic Properties of Icebergs in the
Optical and Infrared Regions ...................... 136
4.6.3 Electromagnetic Properties of Icebergs in the
Microwave Region .................................. 136
Chapter 5 Remote Sensing of Snow Cover ....................... 137
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 137
5.2 Spatial Extent ........................................... 138
5.2.1 Small Scale ....................................... 138
5.2.1.1 VIR Imagery .............................. 138
5.2.1.2 SAR Imagery .............................. 140
5.2.2 Intermediate Scale ................................ 142
5.2.3 Global Scale ...................................... 145
5.3 Snow Water Equivalent and Snow Depth ..................... 149
5.3.1 Small and Intermediate Scales ..................... 149
5.3.2 Global Scale ...................................... 150
5.4 Snow Melt and Runoff Modeling ............................ 152
5.5 Physical Properties of the Snow Pack ..................... 153
5.5.1 Reflectance and Albedo ............................ 153
5.5.2 Grain Size ........................................ 154
5.5.3 Temperature ....................................... 155
5.5.4 Radar Properties .................................. 156
Chapter 6 Remote Sensing of Sea Ice .......................... 157
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 157
6.2 Ice Extent and Concentration ............................. 157
6.3 Ice Type ................................................. 167
6.4 Melt Ponds and Surface Albedo ............................ 171
6.5 Ice Thickness ............................................ 173
6.6 Ice Dynamics ............................................. 176
6.7 Ice Temperature .......................................... 181
Chapter 9 Remote Sensing of Icebergs ......................... 221
9.1 Introductiop ............................................. 221
9.2 Detection and Monitoring of Icebergs ..................... 221
9.2.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Observations ............ 221
9.2.2 Passive Microwave Radiometry ...................... 224
9.2.3 Synthetic Aperture Radar .......................... 224
9.3 Iceberg Thickness ........................................ 229
Chapter 10 Conclusions ........................................ 231
10.1 What has Remote Sensing Revealed about the Cryosphere? ... 231
10.2 What are the Remaining Technical Challenges? ............. 232
10.2.1 General Difficulties .............................. 232
10.2.2 Specific Difficulties ............................. 234
10.3 Recent Trends and Scope for Future Development ........... 235
Bibliography .................................................. 239
Index ......................................................... 277
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