Foreword ....................................................... ix
Preface ........................................................ xi
Acknowledgments ................................................ xv
List of Contributors ......................................... xvii
1 A Systematic View of Remote Sensing .......................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 2
1.2 Platform and Sensor System .............................. 2
1.3 Data Transmission and Ground Receiving System .......... 11
1.4 Data Processing System ................................. 14
1.5 Mapping Category Variables ............................. 18
1.6 Estimating Quantitative Variables ...................... 22
1.7 Production, Archiving, and Distribution of High-level
Products ............................................... 27
1.8 Product Validation ..................................... 28
1.9 Remote Sensing Applications ............................ 28
1.10 Concluding Remarks ..................................... 30
References .................................................. 30
2 Geometric Processing and Positioning Techniques ............. 33
2.1 Overview ............................................... 34
2.2 Geometric Calibration of Satellite Remote-Sensing
Imagery ................................................ 36
2.3 Geometric Rectification of a Single Remote-Sensing
Image .................................................. 43
2.4 Geometric Registration of Satellite Remote-Sensing
Imagery ................................................ 53
2.5 Construction of a Digital Terrain Model ................ 60
2.6 Orthoimage Production .................................. 64
2.7 Summary ................................................ 72
References .................................................. 73
3 Compositing, Smoothing, and Gap-Filling Techniques .......... 75
3.1 Multitemporal Compositing Techniques ................... 76
3.2 Time-series Data Smoothing and Gap-filling ............. 81
3.3 Summary ................................................ 88
References .................................................. 89
4 Data Fusion ................................................. 91
4.1 An Overview of Remote-Sensing Data Fusion .............. 92
4.2 Methods for Pixel-level Remote-Sensing Data Fusion ..... 94
4.3 Generalized Model for Pixel-level Remote-Sensing Data
Fusion ................................................ 101
4.4 Heterogeneous Data Source Fusion Technique ............ 103
4.5 Summary ............................................... 104
References ................................................. 107
5 Atmospheric Correction of Optical Imagery .................. 111
5.1 Atmospheric Effects ................................... 112
5.2 Correcting the Aerosol Impact ......................... 114
5.3 Correcting the Impact of Water Vapor .................. 121
5.4 Correcting the Impacts of Other Constituents .......... 122
5.5 Commonly Used Models and Software ..................... 122
5.6 Conclusions ........................................... 124
References ................................................. 125
6 Solar Radiation ............................................ 127
6.1 Basic Concepts ........................................ 128
6.2 Observation Network of Land-Surface Radiation ......... 131
6.3 Surface Radiation Estimation Based on Satellite
Remote Sensing and Global Circulation Model GCM ....... 136
6.4 Summary and Discussions ............................... 163
Nomenclature ............................................... 169
References ................................................. 170
7 Broadband Albedo ........................................... 175
7.1 Land-Surface Bi-Directional Reflectance Modeling ...... 177
7.2 The Albedo Estimation Method Based on Bi-directional
Reflectance Model Inversion ........................... 194
7.3 The Direct Estimation of Surface Albedo ............... 197
7.4 Joint Optimization of Surface-Atmospheric Parameters .. 207
7.5 Global Land-Surface Albedo Products ................... 213
7.6 Temporal and Spatial Analysis of the Global Land-
Surface Albedo ........................................ 217
7.7 Problems and Prospects ................................ 227
References ................................................. 228
8 Land-Surface Temperature and Thermal Infrared Emissivity ... 235
8.1 The Definitions of LST and LSE ........................ 236
8.2 The Estimation of Average LST ......................... 239
8.3 LSE Estimation Methods ................................ 248
8.4 LSE and LST Products .................................. 265
8.5 Summary ............................................... 267
Acronyms ................................................... 268
References ................................................. 268
9 Surface Longwave Radiation Budget .......................... 273
9.1 Surface Downward Longwave Radiation ................... 274
9.2 Surface Upwelling Longwave Radiation .................. 287
9.3 Surface Net Longwave Radiation ........................ 292
9.4 Ground Validation Networks and Existing Satellite-
Derived Surface Longwave Radiation Budget Products .... 293
9.5 Summary ............................................... 296
References ................................................. 296
10 Canopy Biochemical Characteristics ......................... 301
10.1 Overview of Principles and Methods .................... 302
10.2 Empirical and Semi-empirical Methods .................. 313
10.3 Extraction Using Physical Models ...................... 328
10.4 Conclusions and Discussions ........................... 343
References ................................................. 344
11 Leaf Area Index ............................................ 347
11.1 Definitions ........................................... 348
11.2 Statistical Methods ................................... 351
11.3 Canopy Model Inversion Methods ........................ 353
11.4 Data Assimilation Methods ............................. 370
11.5 Global and Regional LAI Products ...................... 375
11.6 LAI Climatology ....................................... 377
11.7 Summary ............................................... 378
References ................................................. 380
12 Fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active Radiation
by Green Vegetation ........................................ 383
12.1 Definitions ........................................... 384
12.2 FAPAR Field Measurements .............................. 385
12.3 Monte Carlo (MC) simulation ........................... 386
12.4 Empirical Rerrieval Methods ........................... 393
12.5 Popular Remote-Sensing FAPAR Products ................. 395
12.6 FAPAR Retrieval Method Based on the Hybrid
Vegetation Spectral Model ............................. 400
12.7 Case Study ............................................ 406
12.8 Summary ............................................... 411
References ................................................. 412
13 Fractional Vegetation Cover ................................ 415
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 416
13.2 Field Measurements of FVC ............................. 416
13.3 The Remote-Sensing Retrieval .......................... 422
13.4 Current Remote-Sensing Products ....................... 433
13.5 Challenges and Prospects for FVC Estimation ........... 435
References ................................................. 436
14 Vegetation Height and Vertical Structure ................... 439
14.1 Field Measurement of Vegetation Height and Vertical
Structure ............................................. 440
14.2 Small-Footprint Lidar Data ............................ 443
14.3 Large-Footprint Lidar Data ............................ 449
14.4 Vegetation Canopy Height and Vertical Structure from
SAR Data .............................................. 452
14.5 Future Perspectives ................................... 464
References ................................................. 464
15 Above-ground Biomass ....................................... 467
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 467
15.2 Allocation Methods .................................... 468
15.3 Optical Remote-sensing Methods ........................ 471
15.4 Active Remote Sensing Methods ......................... 480
15.5 Methods for Biomass Estimation from Multisource Data .. 488
15.6 Future Perspective .................................... 492
References ................................................. 493
16 Vegetation Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems ............ 501
16.1 Concept of Vegetation Production ...................... 502
16.2 Ground Observation of Vegetation Production ........... 503
16.3 Statistical Models Based on the Vegetation Index ...... 506
16.4 Light-Use Efficiency Model Based on Remote-Sensing
data .................................................. 508
16.5 Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs) .............. 521
16.6 Temporal and Spatial Distribution Pattern of Global
Vegetation Productivity ............................... 526
16.7 Summary ............................................... 528
References ................................................. 528
17 Precipitation .............................................. 533
17.1 Surface Measurement Techniques ........................ 534
17.2 Estimation from Satellite Data ........................ 536
17.3 Global and Regional Datasets .......................... 541
17.4 Global Precipitation Climatology ...................... 549
17.5 Future Perspectives ................................... 552
References ................................................. 554
18 Terrestrial Evapotranspiration ............................. 557
18.1 Introduction .......................................... 557
18.2 Basic Theories of AE .................................. 562
18.3 Satellite AE Algorithms ............................... 565
18.4 Observations for Algorithm Calibration and
Validation ............................................ 576
18.5 Conclusions and Discussion ............................ 579
Acknowledgements ........................................... 581
References ................................................. 581
19 Soil Moisture Content ...................................... 589
19.1 Introduction .......................................... 589
19.2 Conventional SMC Measurement Techniques ............... 590
19.3 Microwave Remote-Sensing Methods ...................... 593
19.4 Optical and Thermal-IR Remote-Sensing Methods ......... 602
19.5 Estimation of Soil Moisture Profile ................... 608
19.6 Comparison of Different Remote-Sensing Techniques ..... 609
19.7 Available Datasets and Spatial and Temporal
Variations ............................................ 609
19.8 Conclusions ........................................... 612
References ................................................. 612
20 Snow Water Equivalence ..................................... 615
20.1 Passive Microwave Remote-Sensing Techniques ........... 616
20.2 Active Microwave Remote-Sensing Techniques ............ 639
20.3 Visible Band Remote-Sensing Techniques ................ 649
20.4 Summary ............................................... 651
References ................................................. 653
21 Water Storage .............................................. 655
21.1 Water-Balance-Based Estimation ........................ 656
21.2 Surface-Parameter-based Estimation .................... 656
21.3 GRACE-based Estimation ................................ 660
21.4 Discussion and Future Prospects ....................... 663
References ............................................ 664
22 High-level Land Product Integration ........................ 667
22.1 Introduction .......................................... 668
22.2 Geostatistical Methods ................................ 672
22.3 Multiresolution Tree .................................. 672
22.4 Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF)-based Methods ..... 680
22.5 Summary ............................................... 686
References ................................................. 687
23 Production and Data Management Systems ..................... 691
23.1 Overview of the Production and Database Management .... 691
23.2 System Hardware ....................................... 692
23.3 Production System ..................................... 692
23.4 Data Management System ................................ 699
23.5 Summary ............................................... 701
References ................................................. 701
24 Land-cover and Land-use Changes ............................ 773
24.1 Introduction .......................................... 704
24.2 Urbanization .......................................... 705
24.3 Intensive Agriculture ................................. 719
24.4 Forest Cover Changes .................................. 738
24.5 Conclusions ........................................... 763
References ................................................. 764
Index ......................................................... 773
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