Preface to the Second Edition .................................. xv
Preface to the First Edition .................................. xjx
List of Contributors ........................................... xx
Introduction .................................................... 1
Part IA: Solar Cells
IA-1. Principles of Solar Cell Operation ....................... 7
T. Markvart and L. Castaсer
1 Introduction ................................................. 7
2 Electrical Characteristics .................................. 10
3 Optical Properties .......................................... 16
4 Typical Solar Cell Structures ............................... 19
IA-2. Semiconductor Materials and Modelling .................... 33
T. Markvart and L. Castaсer
1 Introduction ................................................ 33
2 Semiconductor Band Structure ................................ 34
3 Carrier Statistics in Semiconductors ........................ 38
4 The Transport Equations ..................................... 40
5 Carrier Mobility ............................................ 44
6 Carrier Generation by Optical Absorption .................... 44
7 Recombination ............................................... 48
8 Radiation Damage ............................................ 53
9 Heavy Doping Effects ........................................ 55
10 Properties of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon ............... 57
Acknowledgements ............................................... 59
IA-3. Ideal Efficiencies ....................................... 63
P.T. Landsberg and T. Markvart
1 Introduction ................................................ 63
2 Thermodynamic Efficiencies .................................. 64
3 Efficiencies in Terms of Energies ........................... 65
4 Efficiencies Using the Shockley Solar Cell Equation ......... 67
5 General Comments on Efficiencies ............................ 72
Part IB: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
IB-1. Crystalline Silicon: Manufacture and Properties .......... 79
F. Ferrazza
1 Introduction ................................................ 79
2 Characteristics of Silicon Wafers for Use in PV
Manufacturing ............................................... 80
3 Feedstock Silicon ........................................... 86
4 Crystal-Preparation Methods ................................. 87
5 Shaping and Wafering ........................................ 94
IB-2. High-Efficiency Silicon Solar Cell Concepts .............. 99
M.A. Green
1 Introduction ............................................... 100
2 High-Efficiency Laboratory Cells ........................... 100
3 Screen-Printed Cells ....................................... 111
4 Laser-Processed Cells ...................................... 116
5 HIT Cell ................................................... 120
6 Rear-Contacted Cells ....................................... 121
7 Conclusions ................................................ 124
Acknowledgements .............................................. 125
IB-3. Low-Cost Industrial Technologies for Crystalline
Silicon Solar Cells ........................................... 129
J. Szlufcik, S. Sivoththaman, J. Nijs, R.P. Mertens and
R. Van Overstraeten
1 Introduction ............................................... 130
2 Cell Processing ............................................ 131
3 Industrial Solar Cell Technologies ......................... 145
4 Cost of Commercial Photovoltaic Modules .................... 152
IB-4. Thin Silicon Solar Cells ................................ 161
M. Mauk, P. Sims, J. Rand and A. Barnett
1 Introduction, Background, and Scope of Review .............. 162
2 Light Trapping in Thin Silicon Solar Cells ................. 165
3 Voltage Enhancements in Thin Silicon Solar Cells ........... 174
4 Silicon Deposition and Crystal Growth for Thin Solar
Cells ...................................................... 179
5 Thin Silicon Solar Cells Based on Substrate Thinning ....... 188
6 Summary of Device Results .................................. 190
Part IС: Thin Film Technologies
IC-1. Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells ........................... 209
A. Shah
1 Introduction ............................................... 210
2 Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si:H) Layers ............. 215
3 Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (jic-Si:H) Layers .... 225
4 Functioning of Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells with p-i-n
and n-i-p Structures ....................................... 234
5 Tandem and Multijunction Solar Cells ....................... 252
6 Module Production and Performance .......................... 259
7 Conclusions ................................................ 273
IC-2. CdTe Thin-Film PV Modules ............................... 283
D. Bonnet
1 Introduction ............................................... 284
2 Steps for Making Thin-Film CdTe Solar Cells ................ 285
3 Making of Integrated Modules ............................... 303
4 Production of CdTe Thin-Film Modules ....................... 306
5 The Product and Its Application ............................ 316
6 The Future ................................................. 320
IC-3. Cu(ln,Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Solar Cells ...................... 323
U. Ran and H.W. Schock
1 Introduction ............................................... 324
2 Material Properties ........................................ 325
3 Cell and Module Technology ................................. 331
4 Device Physics ............................................. 346
5 Wide-Gap Chalcopyrites ..................................... 354
6 Conclusions ................................................ 361
Acknowledgements .............................................. 362
IC-4. Progress in Chalcopyrite Compound Semiconductor
Research for Photovoltaic Applications and Transfer of
Results into Actual Solar Cell Production ..................... 373
A. Jаger-Waldau
1 Introduction ............................................... 374
2 Research Directions ........................................ 375
3 Industrialisation .......................................... 379
4 Conclusions and Outlook .................................... 390
Part ID: Space and Concentrator Cells
ID-1. GaAs and High-Efficiency Space Cells ................... 399
V.M. Andreev
1 Historical Review of lll-V Solar Cells ..................... 399
2 Single-Junction III—V Space Solar Cells .................... 403
3 Multifunction Space Solar Cells ............................ 407
Acknowledgements .............................................. 412
ID-2. High-Efficiency lll-V Multijunction Solar Cells ........ 417
S.P. Philipps, F. Dimroth and A.W. Bett
1 Introduction ............................................... 417
2 Special Aspects lll-V Multijunction Solar Cells ............ 419
3 Ill—V Solar Cell Concepts .................................. 427
4 Conclusions ................................................ 440
Acknowledgements .............................................. 440
ID-3. High-Efficiency Back-Contact Silicon Solar Cells for
One-Sun and Concentrator Applications ......................... 449
P.J. Verlinden
1 Introduction ............................................... 449
2 Concentrator Applications of IBC Solar Cells ............... 450
3 Back-Contact Silicon Solar Cells ........................... 453
4 Modelling of Back-Contact Solar Cells ...................... 458
5 Perimeter and Edge Recombination ........................... 462
6 Manufacturing Process for Back-Contact Solar Cells ......... 464
7 Stability of Back-Contact Cells ............................ 464
8 Toward 30% Efficiency Silicon Cells ........................ 467
9 How to Improve the Efficiency of Back-Contact Solar Cells .. 468
10 Conclusions ................................................ 472
Acknowledgements .............................................. 473
Part IE: Dye-Sensitized and Organic Solar Cells
IE-1. Dye-Sensitized Photoelectrochemical Cells ............... 479
A. Hagfeldt, U.B. Cappel, G. Boschloo, L. Sun, L. Kloo,
H. Pettersson and E.A. Gibson
1 Introduction ............................................... 480
2 Photoelectrochemical Cells ................................. 483
3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells ................................. 496
4 Future Outlook ............................................. 536
IE-2. Organic Solar Cells ..................................... 543
C. Dyer-Smith and J. Nelson
1 Introduction ............................................... 544
2 Organic Electronic Materials ............................... 544
3 Principles of Device Operation ............................. 548
4 Optimising Solar Cell Performance .......................... 552
5 Production Issues .......................................... 559
6 Conclusions ................................................ 563
Part IIA: Photovoltaic Systems
IIA-1. The Role of Solar-Radiation Climatology in the
Design of Photovoltaic Systems ................................ 573
J. Page
1 Introduction ............................................... 575
2 Key Features of the Radiation Climatology in Various
Parts of the World ......................................... 577
3 Quantitative Processing of Solar Radiation for
Photovoltaic Design ........................................ 605
4 The Stochastic Generation of Solar-Radiation Data .......... 610
5 Computing the Solar Geometry ............................... 618
6 The Estimation of Hourly Global and Diffuse Horizontal
Irradiation ................................................ 627
7 The Estimation of the All Sky Irradiation on Inclined
Planes from Hourly Time Series of Horizontal Irradiation ... 632
8 Conclusion ................................................. 637
Acknowledgements .............................................. 638
Appendix Solar Energy Data for Selected Sites ................. 642
IIA-2. Energy Production by a PV Array ........................ 645
L. Castaсer, S. Bermejo, T. Markvart and K. Fragaki
1 Annual Energy Production ................................... 645
2 Peak Solar Hours: Concept, Definition, and Illustration .... 646
3 Nominal Array Power ........................................ 648
4 Temperature Dependence of Array Power Output ............... 650
5 Module Orientation ......................................... 651
6 Statistical Analysis of the Energy Production .............. 653
7 Mismatch Losses and Blocking/Bypass Diodes ................. 655
Acknowledgement ............................................... 658
IIA-3. Energy Balance in Stand-Alone Systems .................. 659
L. Castaсer, S. Bermejo, T. Markvart and K. Fragaki
1 Introduction ............................................... 659
2 Load Description ........................................... 663
3 Seasonal Energy Balance .................................... 668
IIA-4. Review of System Design and Sizing Tools ............... 673
S. Silvestre
1 Introduction ............................................... 673
2 Stand-Alone PV Systems Sizing .............................. 674
3 Grid-Connected PV Systems .................................. 681
4 PV System Design and Sizing Tools .......................... 684
Part IIB: Balance-of-system Components
IIB-1. System Electronics ..................................... 697
J.N. Ross
1 Introduction ............................................... 697
2 DC to DC Power Conversion .................................. 698
3 DC to AC Power Conversion (Inversion) ...................... 703
4 Stand-Alone PV Systems ..................................... 708
5 PV Systems Connected to the Local Electricity Utility ...... 714
6 Available Products and Practical Considerations ............ 715
7 Electromagnetic Compatibility .............................. 718
IIB-2. Batteries in PV Systems ................................ 721
D. Spiers
1 Introduction ............................................... 722
2 What Is a Battery? ......................................... 723
3 Why Use a Battery in PV Systems? ........................... 724
4 Battery Duty Cycle in PV Systems ........................... 726
5 The Battery as a 'Black Box' ............................... 727
6 The Battery as a Complex Electrochemical System ............ 737
7 Types of Battery Used in PV Systems ........................ 740
8 Lead-Acid Batteries ........................................ 741
9 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ................................... 754
10 How Long Will the Battery Last in a PV System? ............. 756
11 Selecting the Best Battery for a PV Application ............ 765
12 Calculating Battery Size for a PV System ................... 767
13 Looking After the Battery Properly ......................... 770
14 Summary and Conclusions .................................... 774
Acknowledgements .............................................. 775
Part IIС: Grid-Connected Systems
IIC-1. Grid-Connection of PV Generators: Technical and
Regulatory Issues ............................................. 779
J. Thornycroft and T. Markvart
1 Introduction ............................................... 780
2 Principal Integration Issues ............................... 783
3 Inverter Structure and Operating Principles ................ 784
4 Islanding .................................................. 785
5 Regulatory Issues .......................................... 789
Acknowledgements .............................................. 803
IIC-2. Installation Guidelines: Construction .................. 805
B. Cross
1 Roofs ...................................................... 806
2 Facades .................................................... 811
3 Ground-Mounted Systems ..................................... 817
IIC-3. Installation Guidelines: Electrical .................... 819
M. Cotterell
1 Introduction ............................................... 820
2 Codes and Regulations ...................................... 820
3 DC Ratings (Array Voltage and Current Maxima) .............. 821
4 Device Ratings and Component Selection ..................... 823
5 Array Fault Protection ..................................... 824
6 Earthing Arrangements ...................................... 830
7 Protection by Design ....................................... 832
8 Labelling .................................................. 834
Part IID: Space and Concentrator Systems
IID-1. Concentrator Systems ................................... 837
G. Sala
1 Objectives of PV Concentration ............................. 837
2 Physical Principles of PV Concentration .................... 839
3 Description of a Typical Concentrator: Components and
Operation .................................................. 843
4 Classification of Concentrator Systems ..................... 845
5 Tracking-Control Strategies ................................ 851
6 Applications of С Systems .................................. 854
7 Rating and Specification of PV Systems ..................... 854
8 Energy Produced by а С System .............................. 859
9 The Future of Concentrators ................................ 860
IID-2. Operation of Solar Cells in a Space Environment ........ 863
S. Bailey and R. Rafaelle
1 Introduction ............................................... 863
2 Space Missions and their Environments ...................... 865
3 Space Solar Cells .......................................... 872
4 Small Power Systems ........................................ 875
5 Large Power Systems ........................................ 877
IID-3. Calibration, Testing and Monitoring of Space Solar
Cells ......................................................... 881
E. Fernandez Lisbona
1 Introduction ............................................... 882
2 Calibration of Solar Cells ................................. 883
3 Testing of Space Solar Cells and Arrays .................... 886
4 Monitoring of Space Solar Cells and Arrays ................. 895
Acknowledgements .............................................. 908
Part IIE: Case Studies
IIE-1. Architectural Integration of Solar Cells ............... 917
R. Serra i Florensa and R. Leal Cueva
1 Introduction ............................................... 918
2 Architectural Possibilities for PV Technology .............. 919
3 Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPVs) .................. 923
4 Aesthetics in PV Technology ................................ 926
5 Built Examples ............................................. 934
IIE-2. Solar Parks and Solar Farms ............................ 943
P.R. Wolfe
1 What Is a Solar Park? ...................................... 944
2 Design Issues for Solar Parks .............................. 946
3 Solar Park Project Development Issues ...................... 953
4 Regulatory Issues for Solar Parks .......................... 959
5 The End Game ............................................... 960
Acknowledgements .............................................. 962
IIE-3. Performance, Reliability, and User Experience .......... 963
U. Jahn
1 Operational Performance Results ............................ 964
2 Trends in Long-Term Performance and Reliability ............ 972
3 User Experience ............................................ 978
Acknowledgements .............................................. 982
Appendix. Specifications of Performance Database of IEA
PVPS .......................................................... 983
IIE-4. Solar-Powered Products ................................. 987
P.R. Wolfe
1 The Genesis of Solar-Powered Products ...................... 988
2 Stand-Alone Consumer Products .............................. 989
3 Solar Products for Grid Connection ........................ 1001
4 Nonconsumer Products ...................................... 1003
5 Designing PV for Products ................................. 1004
6 Solar Products of the Future .............................. 1006
Acknowledgements ............................................. 1007
Part III: Testing, Monitoring, and Calibration
III-1. Characterization and Diagnosis of Silicon Wafers,
Ingots, and Solar Cells ...................................... 1011
A. Cuevas, D. Macdonald, R.A. Sinton
1 Introduction .............................................. 1012
2 Factors Affecting Carrier Recombination ................... 1012
3 Measurement of the Minority-Carrier Lifetime .............. 1015
4 Relationship Between Device Voltage and Carrier Lifetime .. 1030
5 Applications to Process Monitoring and Control of
Silicon Solar Cells ....................................... 1031
6 Conclusions ............................................... 1040
Acknowledgements ............................................. 1040
III-2. Standards, Calibration, and Testing of PV Modules
and Solar Cells .............................................. 1045
C.R. Osterwald
1 PV Performance Measurements ............................... 1046
2 Diagnostic Measurements ................................... 1054
3 Commercial Equipment ...................................... 1056
4 Module Reliability and Qualification Testing .............. 1057
5 Module Degradation Case Study ............................. 1061
Acknowledgments .............................................. 1063
III-33. PV System Monitoring ................................. 1071
B. Cross
1 Introduction .............................................. 1071
2 Equipment ................................................. 1073
3 Calibration and Recalibration ............................. 1075
4 Data Storage and Transmission ............................. 1076
5 Monitoring Regimes ........................................ 1076
Part IV: Environment and Health
IV-1. Overview of Potential Hazards .......................... 1083
V.M. Fthenakis
1 Introduction .............................................. 1083
2 Overview of Hazards in PV Manufacture ..................... 1084
3 Crystalline Silicon (x-Si) Solar Cells .................... 1084
4 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cells ...................... 1088
5 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Cells ...................... 1089
6 Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar Cells ................ 1090
7 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) High-Efficiency Solar Cells ....... 1092
8 Operation of PV Modules ................................... 1093
9 Photovoltaic Module Decommissioning ....................... 1094
10 Conclusion ................................................ 1095
IV-2. Energy Payback Time and C02 Emissions of PV Systems .... 1097
E. Alsema
1 Introduction .............................................. 1097
2 Energy Analysis Methodology ............................... 1099
3 Energy Requirements of PV Systems ......................... 1100
4 Energy Balance of PV Systems .............................. 1105
5 Outlook for Future PV Systems ............................. 1107
6 CO2 Emissions ............................................. 1112
7 Conclusions ............................................... 1114
APPENDICES
Appendix A Constants, Physical Quantities and Conversion
Factors ................................................... 1121
Appendix В List of Principal Symbols ........................ 1123
Appendix С Abbreviations and Acronyms ....................... 1131
Appendix D The Photovoltaic Market .......................... 1137
Appendix E The Photovoltaic Industrty ....................... 1153
Appendix F Useful Web Sites and Journals .................... 1173
Appendix G International Standards With Relevance to
Photovoltaics ............................................. 1177
Appendix H Books About Solar Cells, Photovoltaic Systems,
and Applications .......................................... 1185
Index ........................................................ 1189
|
