Tiab D. Petrophysics: theory and practice of measuring reservoir rock and fluid transport properties / D.Tiab, E.C.Donaldson. - 3rd ed. - Waltham; Oxford: Gulf Professional Pub./Elsevier, 2012. - xx, 950 p.: ill. - Incl. bibl. ref. - Ind.: p.913-950. - ISBN 978-0-12-383848-3  Место хранения:   018 | Институт нефтегазовой геологии и геофизики им. А.А.Трофимука | Новосибирск | Библиотека

Оглавление / Contents

Preface ...................................................... xiii About the Authors .............................................. xv Acknowledgment ............................................... xvii Units ......................................................... xix 1 Introduction to Mineralogy Mineral Constituents of Rocks—A Review ....................... 2 Igneous Rocks ................................................ 7 Metamorphic Rocks ............................................ 9 Sedimentary Rocks ............................................ 9 Siltstones (Mudrocks) ..................................... 11 Sandstones ................................................ 11 Carbonates ................................................ 13 Evaporites ................................................ 13 Properties of Sedimentary Particles ......................... 14 Development and Use of Petrophysics ......................... 19 Objectives and Organization ................................. 21 Problems .................................................... 23 Glossary .................................................... 23 2 Introduction to Petroleum Geology Review of Composition of the Globe .......................... 27 Plate Tectonics ............................................. 30 Geologic Time ............................................... 31 Sedimentary Geology ......................................... 35 Basins .................................................... 35 Divergent Continental Margins ............................. 36 Convergent Continental Margins ............................ 36 Transform Continental Margins ............................. 37 Transgressive-Regressive Cycles ........................... 37 Accumulation of Sediments ................................. 38 Hydrocarbon Traps ........................................... 41 Origin of Petroleum ......................................... 44 Transformation of Organics into Kerogen ................... 44 Transformation of Kerogen into Oil and Gas ................ 45 Migration and Accumulation of Petroleum ..................... 47 Primary Migration ......................................... 47 Secondary Migration ....................................... 48 Properties of Subsurface Fluids ............................. 51 Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient ............................. 51 Lithostatic Pressure Gradient ............................. 51 Geothermal Gradient ....................................... 52 Oilfield Waters ........................................... 55 Petroleum ................................................... 62 Petroleum Chemistry ......................................... 68 Problems .................................................... 79 3 Porosity and Permeability Porosity .................................................... 86 Factors Governing the Magnitude of Porosity ................. 86 Engineering Classification of Porosity ...................... 89 Geological Classification of Porosity ....................... 89 Primary Porosity .......................................... 90 Secondary Porosity ........................................ 90 Visual Description of Porosity in Carbonate Rocks ........... 91 Fluid Saturation ............................................ 93 Quantitative Use of Porosity ................................ 95 Permeability ................................................ 97 Classification of Permeability ............................. 101 Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Permeability ............ 101 Permeability-Porosity Relationships ........................ 104 Kozeny Correlation ......................................... 107 Concept of Flow Units ...................................... 111 Mathematical Theory of Flow Units .......................... 113 Specific Surface Area ...................................... 115 Flow Unit Characterization Factors ......................... 119 Flow Units Functions ....................................... 132 Reservoir Zonation Using Normalized RQI .................... 140 Effect of Packing on Permeability .......................... 140 Effect of Water Saturation on Permeability ................. 142 Permeability from NMR and GR Logs ........................ 144 Permeability from GR Logs .................................. 146 Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Carbonate Rocks ..... 148 Estimating Permeability in Carbonate Rocks ............... 151 Directional Permeability ................................... 159 Anisotropy ............................................... 159 Relationship between кH and kV ........................... 162 Reservoir Heterogeneity .................................... 172 Microscopic Heterogeneity ................................ 172 Macroscopic Heterogeneity ................................ 172 Mesoscopic Heterogeneity ................................. 172 Megascopic Heterogeneity ................................. 173 Gigascopic Heterogeneity ................................. 174 Distribution of Rock Properties ............................ 174 Permeability and Porosity Distributions .................... 175 Lorenz Coefficient LK .................................... 175 Dykstra-Parsons Coefficient VK ........................... 176 Averaging Techniques ..................................... 180 Effective Permeability from Core Data .................... 184 Average Porosity and Saturation .......................... 188 Permeability from Well Test Data ........................... 196 Statistical Zonation Technique ............................. 201 Problems ................................................... 206 4 Formation Resistivity and Water Saturation Formation Resistivity Factor ............................... 221 Resistivity Measurement .................................... 222 Determination of Formation Water Resistivity ............... 224 Chemical Analysis ........................................ 224 Resistivity-Concentration Equations ...................... 229 Spontaneous Potential Curve ................................ 234 Shale-Properties Method .................................. 235 Correlation Between FR and Porosity ........................ 236 Correlations Between FR and Tortuosity ..................... 237 Correlations Between FR and Cementation .................... 239 Theoretical Formula for FR ................................. 242 Correlation Between FR and Water Saturation ................ 247 Correlation Between FR and Permeability .................... 256 Resistivity of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks .............. 259 Water Saturation in Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks ......... 260 Approximate Shale Relationship ............................. 266 Generalized Shale Relationship ............................. 266 Flow Units for Shaly Sandstones ............................ 269 Lab-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks ... 273 Log-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks ... 300 Formation Evaluation ....................................... 301 Core Analysis .............................................. 301 Well Log Analysis .......................................... 303 Water Saturation ......................................... 304 Porosity ................................................. 306 Core Interpretation of Data .............................. 310 Interpretation of Well Log Data .......................... 316 Problems ................................................... 318 5 Capillary Pressure Introduction ............................................... 327 Derivation of the Capillary Pressure Equation .............. 327 Capillary Rise ............................................. 331 Capillary Pressure J-Function .............................. 333 Semipermeable Disk Measurement of Capillary Pressure ....... 336 Measurement of Capillary Pressure by Mercury Injection ..... 337 Centrifuge Measurement of Capillary Pressure ............... 343 Laboratory Procedure ..................................... 343 Calculation of Centrifuge Capillary Pressure Data ........ 346 Limiting Centrifuge Speed ................................ 347 Approximate Calculation of the Inlet Saturation ............ 349 Theoretically Exact Calculation of the Inlet Saturation .... 351 Pore Size Distribution ..................................... 355 Vertical Saturation Profile in a Reservoir ................. 358 Capillary Number ........................................... 364 Problems ................................................... 366 6 Wettability Interfacial Tension ........................................ 372 Contact Angle .............................................. 373 Sessile Drop Measurement of Contact Angles ................. 375 Wilhelmy Plate Measurement of Contact Angles ............... 376 Surface Chemical Properties ................................ 377 Evaluation of Wettability .................................. 380 Amott Wettability Index .................................. 381 USBM Wettability Index ................................... 382 Combined Amott-USBM Wettability Test ..................... 384 Spontaneous Imbibition Wettability Test .................... 386 Fluid Displacement Energy .................................. 387 Water-Oil-Rock Interfacial Activity ........................ 390 Effect of Wettability on Oil Recovery ...................... 392 Effect of Brine Salinity on Oil Recovery ................. 396 Alteration of Wettability .................................. 397 Treatment of the Rock ...................................... 397 Addition of Fluid-Soluble Compounds to Water and Oil ..... 398 Aging the Oil-Brine-Rock System ............................ 401 Effects of Temperature and Pressure ........................ 402 Restoration of Original Wettability ...................... 404 Effect of Wettability on Electrical Properties ............. 404 Problems ................................................... 410 7 Applications of Darcy's Law Darcy's Law ................................................ 420 Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids ....................... 421 Linear Flow of Gas ......................................... 423 Darcy's and Poiseuille's Laws .............................. 427 Linear Flow Through Fractures and Channels ................. 428 Flow Through Fractures ..................................... 429 Flow Through Solution Channels ............................. 433 Radial Flow Systems ........................................ 436 Steady-State Flow .......................................... 437 Pseudosteady-State Flow .................................... 439 Skin Zone ................................................ 442 Dimensionless Pressure ................................... 444 Radial Laminar Flow of Gas ................................. 447 Turbulent Flow of Gas ...................................... 452 Linear Turbulent Flow ...................................... 452 Friction Factor of Porous Rocks ............................ 458 Turbulent Radial Flow ...................................... 464 Multiple-Permeability Rocks ................................ 467 Layered Reservoirs with Crossflow .......................... 467 Layered Reservoirs without Crossflow ....................... 468 Composite Reservoirs ....................................... 472 Linear Flow Systems ...................................... 472 Radial Flow Systems ...................................... 474 Problems ................................................... 476 8 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Introduction ............................................... 485 Origin of Permeability in Carbonate Rocks .................. 486 Geological Classifications of Natural Fractures ............ 487 Engineering Classification of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs ................................................. 490 Indicators of Natural Fractures ............................ 492 Visual Identification of Fractures ......................... 496 Petrophysical Properties of Naturally Fractured Rocks ...... 499 Fracture Porosity Determination ............................ 499 Cementation Factor for Carbonates .......................... 503 Porosity Partitioning Coefficient .......................... 507 Fracture Intensity Index ................................... 514 Permeability—Porosity Relationships in Double Porosity Systems .................................................... 518 Porosity and Permeability Relationships in Type 1 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs ............................. 521 Fractures Porosity and Aperture from Cores ................. 522 Specific Area of Fractures ................................. 527 Effect of Fracture Shape ................................... 528 Hydraulic Radius of Fractures .............................. 529 Type 2 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs ...................... 531 Fluid Flow Modeling in Fractures ........................... 533 Fracture Area .............................................. 533 Fracture Storage Capacity .................................. 533 Fracture Conductivity ...................................... 534 Characterizing Natural Fractures from Well-Test Data ....... 535 Fracture Porosity from Pressure Tests ...................... 538 Problems ................................................... 548 9 Effect of Stress on Reservoir Rock Properties Static Stress—Strain Relation .............................. 554 Stress Analysis ............................................ 555 Strain Analysis ............................................ 558 Two-Dimensional Stress—Strain Systems ...................... 559 Rock Deformation ........................................... 560 Hooke's Law ................................................ 560 Stress—Strain Diagrams ..................................... 569 The Mohr Diagram ........................................... 572 Dynamic Elastic Properties ................................. 575 Dynamic Versus Static Modulus of Elasticity ................ 578 Rock Strength and Hardness ................................. 578 Rock Hardness .............................................. 582 Compressibility of Porous Rocks ............................ 583 Pore Compressibility ....................................... 584 Effectiveness of Pore Pressure in Countering Stress ........ 588 Rock Compressibility Correlations .......................... 592 Effect of Pore Compressibility on Reserves Calculations .... 592 Converting Lab Data to Reservoir Data ...................... 594 Effect of Stress on Core Data .............................. 597 Effect of Stress on Porosity ............................... 597 Effect of Stress on Permeability ........................... 602 Effect of Stress on Resistivity ............................ 603 Porosity-Permeability-Stress Relationship .................. 605 Effect of Stress on Fracturing ............................. 619 Effect of Poisson's Ratio on Fracture Gradient ............. 619 FG for Offshore Wells ...................................... 625 Effect of Poisson's Ratio on Fracture Dimensions ........... 630 In Situ Stress Distribution ................................ 634 Effect of Stress Change on Rock Failure .................... 640 Change in Stress Field due to Depletion and Repressurization ........................................... 641 Stress Relationship at the Wellbore ........................ 642 Estimating Critical Borehole Pressure in Vertical Wells .... 643 Overbalanced Conditions .................................. 643 Balanced and Underbalanced Conditions .................... 643 Critical Borehole Pressure in Horizontal Wells ............. 644 Overbalanced Conditions .................................. 644 Underbalanced Conditions ................................. 645 Critical Pore Pressure ..................................... 646 Example of a North Sea Reservoir ........................... 646 Porosity as Strength Indicator to Evaluate Sand Production ................................................. 650 Problems ................................................... 656 Additional Sample Data ..................................... 657 10 Reservoir Characterization Introduction ............................................... 667 Reservoir Volumes .......................................... 670 Hydraulic Flow Units ....................................... 677 Mobility Ratio ............................................. 678 J-Function ................................................. 681 Analysis of Reservoir Performance .......................... 685 Decline Curves ............................................. 686 Material Balance ........................................... 688 Solution Gas Drive ......................................... 688 Gas-Cap Drive .............................................. 689 Water Drive ................................................ 692 Gravity Drainage ........................................... 694 Development of the General Material Balance Equation ....... 694 Gas Reservoir .............................................. 696 Straight Line Solutions of the Material Balance Equation ... 699 Gas Reservoir (Eq. (10.21)) .............................. 700 Oil Reservoirs ........................................... 701 Example FORTRAN Program Analysis of a Decline Curve ........ 704 Problems ................................................... 709 11 Fluid-Rock Interactions Introduction ............................................... 715 Importance of Near-Wellbore Permeability ................... 715 Nature of Permeability Damage .............................. 718 Origin of Permeability Damage .............................. 718 Types of Permeability Damage ............................... 720 Effect of Fines Migration on Permeability .................. 729 Types and Sizes of Fines ................................... 729 Fines Migration ............................................ 734 Chemical Damage .......................................... 738 Mechanical Damage ........................................ 747 Migration of Foreign Solids ................................ 752 Critical Velocity Concept .................................. 752 Entrainment and Surface Deposition ......................... 753 Entrainment and Plugging ................................... 756 Identification of Permeability Damage Mechanisms ........... 762 Permeability Damage from Foreign Solids .................... 762 Permeability Damage from Formation Fines ................... 768 Effect of Water Quality on Permeability .................... 773 External Filter-Cake Buildup ............................... 776 Internal Filter-Cake Buildup ............................... 778 Injectivity Decline from Plugging of Perforations .......... 781 Impairment from Wellbore Fill-up ........................... 783 Membrane Filtration Tests .................................. 784 Core Filtration Tests ...................................... 788 External Filter-Cake Formation ........................... 791 Internal Filter-Cake Formation ........................... 794 Problems ................................................... 797 12 Basic Well-Log Interpretation Introduction ............................................... 803 Geothermal Gradient ........................................ 805 Self-Potential Log ......................................... 805 Gamma Ray Log .............................................. 808 Acoustic Log ............................................... 811 Density Log ................................................ 111 Neutron Log ................................................ 113 Mini Log ................................................... 814 Microlatero and Proximity Logs ............................. 815 Measurement of Oil and Gas.................................. 816 Appendix ...................................................... 829 Index ......................................................... 913