1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Natural Land-Cover Changes .............................. 2
1.2 Anthropogenic Land-Cover Changes ........................ 4
1.3 Land-Cover Changes and Weather and Climate .............. 7
References ................................................... 9
2 Physical and Chemical Principles ............................ 11
1.2.1 Energy Balance ................................. 11
2.1.1 Latent and Sensible Heat Fluxes ................. 13
2.1.2 Surface Heterogeneity ........................... 18
2.2 Clouds and Precipitation ............................... 24
2.3 Air Chemistry .......................................... 26
2.3.1 Emissions ....................................... 26
2.3.2 Background Chemistry ............................ 27
2.3.3 Polluted Air .................................... 28
2.3.4 Aqueous Chemistry ............................... 30
2.3.5 Gas-to-Particle Conversion ...................... 32
2.3.6 Removal of Gases and Aerosols ................... 32
2.4 Interaction Between Energy, Water, and Trace Gas
Cycle .................................................. 35
References .................................................. 36
3 Impact of Land-Cover and Land-Cover Changes ................. 39
3.1 Detection of Land-Cover Changes ........................ 39
3.1.1 Land-Cover Maps ................................. 41
3.1.2 Remote Sensing-Derived Land-Cover ............... 43
3.1.3 Land-Cover Change Detection ..................... 46
3.1.4 Role of Land-Cover Data in Land Cover-Related
Studies ......................................... 48
3.2 Observations and Major Field Experiments ............... 50
3.3 Mechanisms ............................................. 57
3.3.1 Changes of the Surface Fluxes ................... 58
3.3.2 Secondary Changes in Response to Land-Cover
Change .......................................... 59
3.3.3 Teleconnection ....................................... 63
3.4 Scales ................................................. 66
3.4.1 Inhomogeneity ................................... 68
3.4.2 Heterogeneity at Various Scales ................. 69
3.4.3 Impact of Heterogeneity ......................... 70
3.5 Land-Cover Change Impacts .............................. 71
3.5.1 Deforestation and Forest Degradation ............ 72
3.5.2 Conversion of Native Grasslands to Cropland ..... 81
3.5.3 Droughts and Desertification .................... 85
3.5.4 Recultivation ................................... 90
3.5.5 Urbanization .................................... 94
3.5.6 Water Bodies ................................... 102
3.5.7 Interaction of Land-Cover Change Impacts ....... 107
References ................................................. 111
4 Future Challenges .......................................... 117
4.1 Future Emission Scenarios ............................. 118
4.2 Land-Cover Change Impacts Under Future Climate
Conditions ............................................ 122
4.2.1 Biogeophysical Feedbacks ....................... 122
4.2.2 Biogeochemical Feedbacks ....................... 136
4.3 Air Quality ........................................... 141
4.4 Food and Fuel Production .............................. 144
4.4.1 Water Availability ............................. 145
4.4.2 Soil Degradation and Land Loss ................. 148
4.4.3 Biofuel ........................................ 149
4.5 Urbanization, Urban Areas, and Megacities ............. 151
4.5.1 Urban Heat Island .............................. 151
4.5.2 Wafer Management ............................... 154
4.5.3 Air Quality .................................... 154
4.5.4 Urban Planning and Development ................. 158
4.6 Detecting Land-Cover Changes in Observations .......... 160
4.7 Changes of Snow and Ice ............................... 165
4.7.1 Snow-Vegetation and Permafrost-Vegetation
Relation ....................................... 165
4.7.2 Ice-Vegetation Relation ........................ 168
References ................................................. 172
5 Conclusions ................................................ 175
5.1 Modeling and Observations ............................. 176
5.2 Future Assessment ..................................... 180
References ................................................. 181
Index ......................................................... 187
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