Foreword by John H. Seinfeld ................................... xv
Preface ...................................................... xvii
1 Basics and Discovery of Atmospheric Chemicals ................ 1
1.1 Basic Definitions ....................................... 1
1.2 History of Discovery of Elements and Compounds of
Atmospheric Importance .................................. 3
1.3 Chemical Structure and Reactivity ...................... 22
1.4 Chemical Reactions and Photoprocesses .................. 25
1.5 Chemical Lifetimes ..................................... 26
1.6 Chemical Units ......................................... 27
1.7 Summary ................................................ 27
1.8 Problems ............................................... 27
2 The Sun, the Earth, and the Evolution of the Earth's
Atmosphere .................................................. 29
2.1 The Sun and Its Origin ................................. 29
2.2 Spectra of the Radiation of the Sun and the Earth ...... 31
2.3 Primordial Evolution of the Earth and Its Atmosphere ... 33
2.4 Summary ................................................ 43
2.5 Problems ............................................... 43
3 Structure and Composition of the Present-Day Atmosphere ..... 45
3.1 Air Pressure and Density Structure ..................... 45
3.2 Processes Affecting Temperature ........................ 46
3.3 Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere ................ 49
3.4 Equation of State ...................................... 52
3.5 Composition of the Present-Day Atmosphere .............. 55
3.6 Characteristics of Selected Gases and Aerosol
Particle Components .................................... 56
3.7 Summary ................................................ 71
3.8 Problems ............................................... 71
4 Urban Air Pollution ......................................... 73
4.1 History and Early Regulation of Outdoor Urban Air
Pollution .............................................. 73
4.2 Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Background Troposphere ...... 85
4.3 Chemistry of Photochemical Smog ........................ 88
4.3.1 Emissions of Photochemical Smog Precursors ...... 89
4.4 Pollutant Removal ...................................... 98
4.5 Summary ................................................ 98
4.6 Problems ............................................... 99
5 Aerosol Particles in the Polluted and Global Atmosphere .... 101
5.1 Size Distributions .................................... 101
5.2 Sources and Compositions of New Particles ............. 103
5.3 Processes Affecting Particle Size ..................... 112
5.4 Summary of the Composition of Aerosol Particles ....... 120
5.5 Aerosol Particle Morphology and Shape ................. 120
5.6 Health Effects of Aerosol Particles ................... 122
5.7 Quantifying the Health Effects of Particles or Gases .. 123
5.8 Summary ............................................... 124
5.9 Problems .............................................. 124
6 Effects of Meteorology on Air Pollution .................... 127
6.1 Forces ................................................ 127
6.2 Winds ................................................. 128
6.3 Global Circulation of the Atmosphere .................. 131
6.4 Semipermanent Pressure Systems ........................ 134
6.5 Thermal Pressure Systems .............................. 135
6.6 Effects of Large-Scale Pressure Systems on Air
Pollution ............................................. 135
6.7 Effects of Local Meteorology on Air Pollution ......... 144
6.8 Summary ............................................... 150
6.9 Problems .............................................. 151
7 Effects of Pollution on Visibility, Ultraviolet Radiation,
and Colors in the Sky ...................................... 153
7.1 Processes Affecting Solar Radiation in the
Atmosphere ............................................ 153
7.2 Visibility ............................................ 166
7.3 Colors in the Atmosphere .............................. 170
7.4 Summary ............................................... 172
7.5 Problems .............................................. 173
7.6 Visibility Project .................................... 174
8 International Regulation of Urban Smog Since the 1940s ..... 175
8.1 Regulation in the United States ....................... 175
8.2 Pollution Trends and Regulations outside the United
States ................................................ 189
8.3 Summary ............................................... 205
8.4 Problems .............................................. 205
9 Indoor Air Pollution ....................................... 207
9.1 Pollutants in Indoor Air and Their Sources ............ 207
9.2 Sick Building Syndrome ................................ 217
9.3 Personal Clouds ....................................... 218
9.4 Regulation of Indoor Air Pollution .................... 218
9.5 Summary ............................................... 219
9.6 Problems .............................................. 219
10 Acid Deposition ............................................ 221
10.1 Historical Aspects of Acid Deposition ................. 221
10.2 Causes of Acidity ..................................... 224
10.3 Sulfuric Acid Deposition .............................. 226
10.4 Nitric Acid Deposition ................................ 228
10.5 Effects of Acid Deposition ............................ 228
10.6 Natural and Artificial Neutralization of Lakes and
Soils ................................................. 231
10.7 Recent Regulatory Control of Acid Deposition .......... 234
10.8 Summary ............................................... 235
10.9 Problems .............................................. 236
11 Global Stratospheric Ozone Reduction ....................... 237
11.1 Structure of the Present-Day Ozone Layer .............. 237
11.2 Relationship between the Ozone Layer and Ultraviolet
Radiation ............................................. 239
11.3 Chemistry of the Natural Ozone Layer .................. 240
11.4 Recent Changes to the Ozone Layer ..................... 243
11.5 Effects of Chlorine on Global Ozone Reduction ......... 245
11.6 Effects of Bromine on Global Ozone Reduction .......... 251
11.7 Regeneration Rates of Stratospheric Ozone ............. 251
11.8 Antarctic Ozone Hole .................................. 252
11.9 Effects of Enhanced UV-B Radiation on Life and
Ecosystems ............................................ 256
11.10 Regulation of Chlorofluorocarbons .................... 259
11.11 Summary .............................................. 261
11.12 Problems ............................................. 261
12 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ................... 263
12.1 Temperature on Earth in the Absence of a Greenhouse
Effect ................................................ 263
12.2 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming .............. 268
12.3 Recent and Historical Temperature Trends .............. 274
12.4 Feedbacks and Other Factors That May Affect Global
Temperatures .......................................... 288
12.5 Consequences of Global Warming ........................ 294
12.6 Regulatory Control of Global Warming .................. 301
12.7 Summary ............................................... 306
12.8 Problems .............................................. 307
12.9 Essay Questions ....................................... 307
13 Energy Solutions to Air Pollution and Global Warming ....... 309
13.1 Clean, Low-Risk, Sustainable Energy Systems ........... 309
13.2 Characteristics of Electricity-Generating Wind,
Water, and Sunlight Technologies ...................... 317
13.3 Energy Needed to Power the World ...................... 323
13.4 Wind, Water, and Sunlight Resources Available to
Power the World ....................................... 323
13.5 Number, Footprint, and Spacing of Plants and Devices
Required .............................................. 325
13.6 Material Resources Required ........................... 329
13.7 Downtime of Wind, Water, and Sunlight versus
Conventional Energy Technologies ...................... 331
13.8 Reliably Matching Demand with Variable Wind, Water,
and Sunlight Resources ................................ 332
13.9 Cost of Wind, Water, and Sunlight Electricity
Generation and Long-Distance At Transmission .......... 335
13.10 Policy Mechanisms .................................... 336
13.11 Summary and Conclusions .............................. 337
13.12 Problems ............................................. 339
13.13 Group or Individual Project .......................... 340
Appendix: Conversions and Constants ........................... 341
References .................................................... 343
Index ......................................................... 359
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