Part 1
The history of iron and steel - of swords and ploughshares
1 From iron to steel
1.1 The long history of iron ................................ 3
1.2 The three sources of iron ............................... 4
1.3 Early ironmaking technology ............................. 6
1.4 The spread of ironmaking technology ..................... 8
2 Of swords and swordmaking
2.1 Swordmaking, the cutting edge of metallurgical
history ................................................ 13
2.2 The Celtic swordmaking tradition ....................... 14
2.3 Merovingian and Carolingian swords ..................... 16
2.4 True or oriental Damascus steel swords produced using
wootz steel ............................................... 20
2.5 Mechanical or pattern welded damascene swords .......... 20
2.6 In search of a lost art ................................ 21
2.7 Asiatic swords ......................................... 27
2.8 Contemporary damascene structures ...................... 31
Part 2
The Genesis of Microstructures
3 The principal phases in steels
3.1 The phases of pure iron ................................ 37
3.2 Solid solutions ........................................ 39
3.3 Order-disorder transformations ......................... 40
3.4 Intermediate phases .................................... 42
4 The basic phase diagrams
4.1 Equilibria between condensed phases .................... 47
4.2 Theoretically calculated phase diagrams ................ 53
4.3 Experimentally determined phase diagram ................ 56
4.4 The Fe-Cr-C system: liquidus surface ................... 56
4.5 The Fe-Cr-C system: isothermal sections and isopleths .. 60
4.6 The Fe-Cr-C system: solidification paths ............... 62
4.7 The Fe-Cr-C system: the austenite field ................ 65
4.8 The Fe-Cr-Ni system .................................... 69
4.9 The Fe-Mn-S system ..................................... 71
4.10 The Fe-Cu-Co system .................................... 75
4.11 The Fe-Mo-Cr system .................................... 78
4.12 The Fe-C-V system ...................................... 84
4.13 Mixed carbides ......................................... 86
5 The formation of solidification structures
5.1 Solute partitioning phenomena during solidification .... 91
5.2 Local solute partitioning .............................. 94
5.3 The growing solid interface ............................ 95
5.4 The evolution of dendritic microstructures ............ 101
5.5 Secondary dendrite arm spacings ....................... 106
5.6 Eutectic microstructures .............................. 108
5.7 Peritectic microstructures ............................ 116
6 Liquid/solid structural transformations
6.1 Experimental techniques: controlled solidification .... 121
6.2 Experimental techniques: thermal analysis ............. 124
6.3 Solidification paths .................................. 127
6.4 Metastable solidification paths ....................... 138
6.5 Peritectic transformations ............................ 141
7 Grains, grain boundaries and interfaces
7.1 General aspects ....................................... 151
7.2 Characteristics associated with grain boundaries ...... 157
8 Diffusion
8.1 Chemical diffusion .................................... 163
8.2 Zones affected by diffusion ........................... 165
8.3 Case hardening ........................................ 168
8.4 Diffusion couples ..................................... 172
8.5 Galvanising ........................................... 173
9 The decomposition of austenite
9.1 The different types of solid state transformatione .... 179
9.2 The representation of solid state phase
transformations ....................................... 180
9.3 Growth mechanisms ..................................... 184
9.4 Diffusive exchanges at interfaces ..................... 187
9.5 The formation of pro.eutectoid ferrite and cementite .. 191
10 The pearlite transformation
10.1 The eutectoid transformation in the Fe.C system ....... 195
10.2 The kinetics of pearlite transformation ............... 199
10.3 The influence of alloying elements .................... 200
10.4 The re.dissolution of pearlite ........................ 206
11 The martensite transformation
11.1 Displacive transformations in the Fe.C system ......... 209
11.2 Characteristics of the martensite transformation ...... 211
11.3 The morphology of martensite .......................... 215
11.4 Softening and tempering of martensite ................. 219
12 The bainite transformation
12.1 Bainite structures .................................... 223
12.2 Upper bainite ......................................... 225
12.3 Lower bainite ......................................... 232
13 Precipitation
13.1 Continuous precipitation .............................. 239
13.2 Discontinuous precipitation ........................... 245
13.3 Precipitate growth .................................... 248
Part 3
Steels and cast irons
14 Steel Design
14.1 Mechanical properties ................................. 255
14.2 The effects of alloying elements ...................... 263
14.3 The common alloying additions ......................... 265
15 Solidification macrostructures
15.1 Solidification of steels .............................. 269
15.2 Solidification structure of a continuously cast
steel ................................................. 270
15.3 Solidification structures in large conventional
ingots ................................................ 273
15.4 Quality of solidification structures .................. 276
16 Macro. and microstructures of sintered powder products
16.1 Sintering ............................................. 281
16.2 Steels produced by solid state sintering .............. 284
16.3 Steels produced by transient liquid phase sintering ... 286
16.4 Sintered Fe-Cu-Co composite alloys .................... 287
17 Plain carbon and low alloy steels
17.1 Mild steels for deep drawing .......................... 289
17.2 Low alloy structural steels ........................... 291
17.3 The TRIP steels ....................................... 295
18 Quench hardening steels
18.1 Hypoeutectoid steels .................................. 297
18.2 Hypereutectoid steels ................................. 300
18.3 Tool steels and high speed steels ..................... 302
19 Stainless steels
19.1 Martensitic stainless steels .......................... 305
19.2 Austenitic stainless steels ........................... 313
19.3 Nitrogen-containing stainless steels .................. 318
19.4 Manganese-containing austenitic steels ................ 320
19.5 Resulphurised stainless steels ........................ 321
19.6 Ferritic stainless steels ............................. 323
19.7 Duplex stainless steels ............................... 325
20 Heat resisting steels and iron-containing superalloys
20.1 Ferritic heat resisting steels ........................ 331
20.2 Austenitic heat resisting steels ...................... 335
20.3 Precipitation hardened alloys ......................... 338
21 Cast irons
21.1 Phases and microstructural constituents in cast
irons ................................................. 347
21.2 White cast irons ...................................... 347
21.3 Grey cast irons ....................................... 349
21.4 Spheroidal graphite (SG) cast irons ................... 356
21.5 The heat treatment of grey (SG) cast irons ............ 363
22 Appendices
22.1 General comments ...................................... 367
22.2 Interface energies .................................... 367
22.3 Chromium and nickel equivalents ....................... 367
22.4 Etching reagents ...................................... 368
22.5 Characteristic diffusion lengths ...................... 369
22.6 Empirical formulae for determining the Ms and Mf ..... 370
22.7 Effects of alloying elements in steels ................ 370
22.8 Typical Hardness values of various constituents
found in steels ....................................... 373
23 References
24 Index
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