1 Composite Material Structure and Processing .................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 Composite Material Structure ............................ 4
1.2.1 Continuous Fiber Composites ...................... 5
1.2.2 Carbon-Carbon Composites ......................... 6
1.2.3 Cement-Matrix Composites ......................... 7
1.3 Processing of Composite Materials ....................... 8
1.3.1 Polymer-Matrix Composites ........................ 8
1.3.2 Metal-Matrix Composites ......................... 14
1.3.3 Carbon-Matrix Composites ........................ 21
1.3.4 Ceramic-Matrix Composites ....................... 25
1.3.5 Cement-Matrix Composites ........................ 26
1.4 Composite Design Concepts .............................. 27
1.5 Applications of Composite Materials .................... 30
Review Questions ............................................ 32
References .................................................. 33
Further Reading ............................................. 33
2 Carbon Fibers and Nanofillers ............................... 35
2.1 Carbons ................................................ 35
2.2 Carbon Fibers .......................................... 36
2.3 Nanofillers ............................................ 40
Review Questions ............................................ 45
Further Reading ............................................. 46
3 Mechanical Properties ....................................... 47
3.1 Property Requirements .................................. 47
3.2 Basic Mechanical Properties ............................ 49
3.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity ........................... 49
3.2.2 Strength ........................................ 57
3.2.3 Ductility ....................................... 61
3.3 Effect of Damage on the Mechanical Properties .......... 61
3.4 Brittle vs. Ductile Materials .......................... 62
3.5 Strengthening .......................................... 62
3.6 Vibration Damping Ability .............................. 65
3.6.1 Introduction .................................... 65
3.6.2 Viscoelastic Behavior ........................... 67
3.6.3 Pseudoplasticity and Ferroelasticity ............ 84
3.6.4 Interfacial Damping ............................. 85
3.6.5 Structural Materials for Damping ................ 85
3.6.6 Comparison of Materials Utilized for Damping .... 87
3.6.7 Emerging Materials for Damping .................. 89
Review Questions ............................................ 91
References .................................................. 92
Further Reading ............................................. 93
4 Durability and Degradation of Materials ..................... 95
4.1 Corrosion Resistance ................................... 95
4.1.1 Introduction to Electrochemical Behavior ........ 95
4.1.2 Corrosion Protection ........................... 104
4.2 Elevated Temperature Resistance ....................... 108
4.2.1 Technological Relevance ........................ 108
4.2.2 Effects of Thermal Degradation ................. 109
4.2.3 Origins of Thermal Degradation ................. 110
4.2.4 Effects of Temperature on the Composite
Microstructure ................................. 113
4.2.5 Improving the Elevated Temperature
Resistance ..................................... 115
4.2.6 Investigation of Elevated Temperature
Resistance ..................................... 117
4.3 Fatigue Resistance .................................... 122
4.3.1 Mechanical Fatigue ............................. 122
4.3.2 Thermal Fatigue ................................ 125
4.4 Durability ............................................ 125
Review Questions ........................................... 128
References ................................................. 129
Further Reading ............................................ 129
5 Materials for Lightweight Structures, Civil
Infrastructure, Joining and Repair ......................... 131
5.1 Materials for Lightweight Structures .................. 131
5.1.1 Composites with Polymer, Carbon, Ceramic and
Metal Matrices ................................. 131
5.1.2 Cement-Matrix Composites ....................... 132
5.2 Materials for Civil Infrastructure .................... 133
5.3 Materials for Joining ................................. 136
5.3.1 Sintering or Autohesion ........................ 137
5.3.2 Welding ........................................ 138
5.3.3 Brazing and Soldering .......................... 141
5.3.4 Adhesion ....................................... 144
5.3.5 Cementitious Joining ........................... 145
5.3.6 Joining Using Inorganic Binders ................ 146
5.3.7 Joining Using Carbon Binders ................... 149
5.3.8 Fastening ...................................... 149
5.3.9 Expansion Joints ............................... 152
5.4 Materials Used for Repair ............................. 153
5.4.1 Patching ....................................... 153
5.4.2 Wrapping ....................................... 153
5.4.3 Self-healing ................................... 154
Review Questions ........................................... 155
References ................................................. 156
Further Reading ............................................ 156
6 Tailoring Composite Materials .............................. 157
6.1 Tailoring by Component Selection ...................... 157
6.1.1 Polymer-Matrix Composites ...................... 157
6.1.2 Cement-Matrix Composites ....................... 158
6.1.3 Metal-Matrix Composites ........................ 162
6.2 Tailoring by Interface Modification ................... 170
6.2.1 Interface Bond Modification .................... 170
6.2.2 Interface Composition Modification ............. 179
6.2.3 Interface Microstructure Modification .......... 185
6.3 Tailoring by Surface Modification ..................... 185
6.4 Tailoring by Microstructure Control ................... 191
6.4.1 Crystallinity Control .......................... 191
6.4.2 Porosity Control ............................... 192
6.5 Tailoring by Organic-Inorganic Nanoscale
Hybridization ......................................... 194
6.5.1 Nanocomposites with Organic Solid
Nanoparticles Dispersed in an Inorganic
Matrix ......................................... 194
6.5.2 Nanocomposites with an Organic Component
Dispersed in an Inorganic Matrix Where the
Organic Component is Added as a Liquid ......... 197
6.5.3 Nanocomposites Made by Inorganic Component
Exfoliation and Subsequent Organic Component
Adsorption ..................................... 198
Review Questions ........................................... 199
References ................................................. 200
Further Reading ............................................ 200
7 Electrical Properties ...................................... 203
7.1 Origin of Electrical Conduction ....................... 203
7.2 Volume Electrical Resistivity ......................... 204
7.3 Calculating the Volume Electrical Resistivity of
a Composite Material .................................. 206
7.3.1 Parallel Configuration ......................... 206
7.3.2 Series Configuration ........................... 208
7.4 Contact Electrical Resistivity ........................ 209
7.5 Electric Power and Resistance Heating ................. 210
7.5.1 Scientific Basis ............................... 210
7.5.2 Self-Heating Structural Materials .............. 212
7.6 Effect of Temperature on the Electrical Resistivity ... 219
7.6.1 Scientific Basis ............................... 219
7.6.2 Structural Materials Used as Thermistors ....... 221
7.7 Effect of Strain on the Electrical Resistivity
(Piezoresistivity) .................................... 225
7.7.1 Scientific Basis ............................... 225
7.7.2 Effects of Strain and Strain-Induced Damage
on the Electrical Resistivity of Polymer-
Matrix Structural Composites ................... 226
7.8 Seebeck Effect ........................................ 233
7.8.1 Scientific Basis ............................... 233
7.8.2 Thermoelectric Composites ...................... 239
7.9 Applications of Conductive Materials .................. 244
7.9.1 Overview of Applications ....................... 244
7.9.2 Microelectronic Applications ................... 246
7.9.3 Electrochemical Applications ................... 247
7.10 Conductive Phase Distribution and Connectivity ........ 248
7.10.1 Effect of the Conductive Filler Aspect Ratio ... 248
7.10.2 Effect of the Nonconductive Thermoplastic
Particle Viscosity ............................. 249
7.10.3 Effect of Conductive Particle Size ............. 251
7.10.4 Effect of Additives ............................ 252
7.10.5 Levels of Percolation .......................... 256
7.11 Electrically Conductive Joints ........................ 256
7.11.1 Mechanically Strong Joints for Electrical
Conduction ..................................... 257
7.11.2 Mechanically Weak Joints for Electrical
Conduction ..................................... 264
7.11.3 Electrical Connection Through Pressure
Application .................................... 267
7.11.4 Electrical Connection Through a Z-Axis
Electrical Conductor ........................... 268
7.12 Porous Conductors ..................................... 269
7.12.1 Porous Conductors Without a Nonconductive
Filler ......................................... 270
7.12.2 Porous Conductors With a Nonconductive Filler
and a Conductive Additive ...................... 271
Review Questions ........................................... 272
References ................................................. 273
Further Reading ............................................ 274
8 Thermal Properties ......................................... 277
8.1 Thermal Expansion ..................................... 277
8.2 Specific Heat ......................................... 282
8.3 Phase Transformations ................................. 284
8.3.1 Scientific Basis ............................... 284
8.3.2 Shape Memory Effect ............................ 287
8.3.3 Calorimetry .................................... 293
8.4 Thermal Conductivity .................................. 293
8.5 Thermal Conductance of an Interface ................... 298
8.6 Evaluating the Thermal Conduction ..................... 299
8.6.1 Guarded Hot Plate Method ....................... 299
8.6.2 Laser Flash Method ............................. 302
8.7 Thermal Interface Materials ........................... 304
8.8 Composites Used for Microelectronic Heat Sinks ........ 312
8.8.1 Metals, Diamond, and Ceramics .................. 313
8.8.2 Metal-Matrix Composites ........................ 314
8.8.3 Carbon-Matrix Composites ....................... 317
8.8.4 Carbon and Graphite ............................ 318
8.8.5 Ceramic-Matrix Composites ...................... 319
8.8.6 Polymer-Matrix Composites ...................... 319
8.9 Carbon Fiber Polymer-Matrix Composites for Aircraft
Heat Dissipation ...................................... 320
8.9.1 Interlaminar Interface Nanostructuring ......... 321
8.9.2 Through-Thickness Thermal Conductivity ......... 322
8.9.3 Through-Thickness Compressive Properties ....... 323
8.9.4 Flexural Properties ............................ 324
8.10 Composites Used for Thermal Insulation ................ 326
Example Problems ........................................... 328
Review Questions ........................................... 330
References ................................................. 330
Further Reading ............................................ 330
Appendix: Test ................................................ 333
Test Questions ............................................. 333
Part I (32%) ............................................ 333
Part II (68%) ........................................... 337
Test Solutions ............................................. 339
Part I (32%) ............................................ 339
Part II (68%) ........................................... 339
Index ......................................................... 343
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