1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 The World Cold Regions .................................. 1
1.2 Water in Frozen Soils ................................... 2
1.3 Permafrost .............................................. 5
1.3.1 Definitions ...................................... 5
1.3.2 Distribution ..................................... 6
1.3.3 Factors Influencing Permafrost Occurrence ........ 7
1.4 Permafrost and Hydrology ............................... 13
1.4.1 Permafrost Hydrology ............................ 13
1.4.2 Hydrologie Behavior of Seasonal Frost and
Permafrost ...................................... 15
1.5 Environments of Permafrost Regions ..................... 16
1.5.1 Hydroclimatology ................................ 16
1.5.2 Geology ......................................... 17
1.5.3 Glaciation ...................................... 20
1.5.4 Physiography .................................... 20
1.5.5 Vegetation ...................................... 26
1.5.6 Peat Cover ...................................... 30
1.6 Presentation of the Book ............................... 31
References .................................................. 33
2 Moisture and Heat ........................................... 35
2.1 Precipitation .......................................... 35
2.1.1 General Pattern ................................. 35
2.1.2 Cyclones ........................................ 36
2.1.3 Recycling ....................................... 37
2.1.4 Trace Precipitation ............................. 39
2.2 Surface Energy Balance ................................. 40
2.3 Evaporation ............................................ 42
2.3.1 Eddy Fluctuation Method ......................... 43
2.3.2 Aerodynamic Method .............................. 44
2.3.3 Bowen Ratio Method .............................. 44
2.3.4 Priestley and Taylor Method ..................... 45
2.4 Energy Balance of the Active Layer ..................... 46
2.4.1 Energy Balance .................................. 46
2.4.2 Thermal Conductivity and Heat Capacity .......... 47
2.5 Ground Temperature ..................................... 49
2.5.1 Penetration of Temperature Waves ................ 50
2.5.2 Frost Table Development ......................... 52
2.6 Heat and Moisture Flows in Frozen Soils ................ 53
2.6.1 Stefan's Algorithm .............................. 54
2.6.2 Near-Surface Ground Temperature ................. 55
2.6.3 Moisture Migration and Ice Lens Formation ....... 56
2.7 Ground Ice ............................................. 61
2.7.1 Types of Ground Ice ............................. 61
2.7.2 Excess Ice ...................................... 66
References .................................................. 70
3 Groundwater ................................................. 73
3.1 Groundwater Occurrence in Permafrost ................... 74
3.1.1 Suprapermafrost Groundwater ..................... 75
3.1.2 Intrapermafrost Groundwater ..................... 76
3.1.3 Subpermafrost Groundwater ....................... 77
3.2 Groundwater Recharge and Circulation ................... 78
3.2.1 Recharge ........................................ 78
3.2.2 Groundwater Movement ............................ 80
3.3 Groundwater Discharge .................................. 84
3.3.1 Seeps ........................................... 84
3.3.2 Springs ......................................... 87
3.3.3 Baseflow ........................................ 90
3.3.4 Ponds and Lakes ................................. 93
3.4 Icings ................................................. 95
3.4.1 Ground and Spring Icings ........................ 96
3.4.2 River Icings ................................... 100
3.4.3 Icing Dimension ................................ 105
3.4.4 Icing Problems ................................. 106
3.5 Domed Ice Features .................................... 107
3.5.1 Frost Mounds and Icing Mounds .................. 107
3.5.2 Pingos ......................................... 108
References ................................................. 116
4 Snow Cover ................................................. 119
4.1 Snow Accumulation ...................................... 119
4.1.1 Winter Precipitation ........................... 120
4.1.2 Blowing Snow ................................... 121
4.1.3 Terrain Heterogeneity .......................... 123
4.1.4 Vegetation Cover ............................... 125
4.2 Characteristics of the Snow Cover ..................... 130
4.2.1 Snow Temperature and Insulation ................ 130
4.2.2 Snow Metamorphism .............................. 132
4.2.3 Snow Stratigraphy .............................. 133
4.3 Snowmelt Processes .................................... 134
4.3.1 Radiation Melt ................................. 136
4.3.2 Turbulent Fluxes Melt .......................... 138
4.3.3 Other Melt Terms ............................... 140
4.4 Snowmelt in Permafrost Areas .......................... 142
4.4.1 Tundra and Barren Areas ........................ 145
4.4.2 Dirty Snow ..................................... 148
4.4.3 Shrub Fields ................................... 148
4.4.4 Forests ........................................ 150
4.5 Meltwater Movement in Snow ............................ 152
4.5.1 Dry Snow ....................................... 154
4.5.2 Wet Snow ....................................... 157
References ................................................. 159
5 Active Layer Dynamics ...................................... 163
5.1 Freeze-Back and Winter Periods ........................ 163
5.1.1 Snow Cover and Ground Freezing ................. 164
5.1.2 Moisture Flux and Ice Formation ................ 167
5.1.3 Vapor Flux from Soil to Snow ................... 170
5.2 Snowmelt Period ....................................... 171
5.2.1 Snowmelt and Basal Ice ......................... 172
5.2.2 Infiltration into Frozen Soil .................. 178
5.2.3 Soil Warming ................................... 185
5.2.4 Surface Saturation, Evaporation and Runoff ..... 187
5.3 Summer ................................................ 190
5.3.1 Active Layer Thaw .............................. 190
5.3.2 Summer Precipitation ........................... 199
5.3.3 Evaporation .................................... 202
5.3.4 Rainwater Infiltration ......................... 212
5.3.5 Soil Moisture .................................. 216
5.3.6 Groundwater .................................... 220
References ................................................. 223
6 Slope Processes ............................................ 229
6.1 Flow Paths ............................................. 229
6.1.1 Flow Paths in Snow ............................. 229
6.1.2 Surface and Subsurface Flows ................... 235
6.1.3 Flow in Bedrock Areas .......................... 237
6.1.4 Flow in Unconsolidated Materials ............... 239
6.2 Water Sources ......................................... 254
6.3 Factors Influencing Slope Runoff Generation ........... 258
6.3.1 Microclimatic Control .......................... 258
6.3.2 Topographic Influence .......................... 259
6.3.3 Importance of the Frost Table .................. 261
6.3.4 Roles of Organic Materials ..................... 267
6.3.5 Bedrock Control ................................ 272
6.4 Basin Slopes in Permafrost Regions .................... 275
6.4.1 High Arctic Slopes ............................. 276
6.4.2 Low Arctic Slopes .............................. 281
6.4.3 Subarctic Slopes ............................... 284
6.4.4 Alpine Permafrost Zones ........................ 287
6.4.5 Precambrian Bedrock Terrain .................... 293
6.5 Concepts for Basin Flow Generation .................... 296
6.5.1 Variable Source Area and Fill-and-Spill
Concepts ....................................... 296
6.5.2 Heterogeneous Slopes ........................... 299
References ................................................. 300
7 Cold Lakes ................................................. 305
7.1 Types of Lakes ........................................ 305
7.2 Lake Ice .............................................. 310
7.2.1 Lake Ice Regime ................................ 310
7.2.2 Ice Formation and Growth ....................... 313
7.2.3 Ice Decay ...................................... 317
7.3 Lake Circulation ...................................... 323
7.4 Hydrologie Inputs ..................................... 325
7.5 Lake Evaporation ...................................... 329
7.6 Lake Outflow .......................................... 331
7.6.1 Outflow Conditions ............................. 331
7.6.2 Fill-and-Spill Concept and Lake Outflow ........ 335
7.7 Lake Level ............................................ 338
7.8 Large Lakes ........................................... 339
7.9 Permafrost and Lakes .................................. 343
References ................................................. 344
8 Northern Wetlands .......................................... 347
8.1 Wetlands in Permafrost Regions ........................ 347
8.2 Factors Favoring Wetland Occurrence ................... 348
8.2.1 Climate ........................................ 349
8.2.2 Topography ..................................... 349
8.2.3 Stratigraphy ................................... 350
8.2.4 Other Factors .................................. 351
8.3 Hydrogeomorphic Features in Wetlands .................. 353
8.3.1 Bog-Related Features ........................... 354
8.3.2 Fen-Related Features ........................... 357
8.3.3 Marshes and Swamps ............................. 357
8.3.4 Shallow Water Bodies ........................... 360
8.4 Hydrologie Behavior of Wetlands ....................... 363
8.4.1 Seasonality of Hydrologie Activities ........... 364
8.4.2 Wetland Storage ................................ 370
8.4.3 Flow Paths ..................................... 373
8.4.4 Application of Fill-and-Spill Concept .......... 378
8.5 Patchy Arctic Wetlands ................................ 380
8.5.1 Wetlands Maintained by Snowmelt ................ 381
8.5.2 Groundwater-Fed Wetlands ....................... 383
8.5.3 Valley Bottom Fens ............................. 383
8.5.4 Wetlands due to Lateral Inundation ............. 385
8.5.5 Tundra Ponds ................................... 385
8.5.6 Lake-Fed and Lake-Bed Wetlands ................. 387
8.6 Extensive Wetlands .................................... 388
8.6.1 Wet Terrain .................................... 388
8.6.2 Ice-Wedge Polygon Fields ....................... 390
8.6.3 Coastal Plains ................................. 391
8.6.4 Deltas ......................................... 395
8.6.5 Subarctic Continental Wetlands ................. 396
8.7 Wetlands, Permafrost and Disturbances ................. 400
References ................................................. 404
9 Rivers in Cold Regions ..................................... 407
9.1 Drainage Patterns ..................................... 407
9.2 In-Valley Conditions .................................. 411
9.2.1 Geological Setting for Channels ................ 411
9.2.2 River Ice ...................................... 413
9.2.3 River Icing .................................... 420
9.2.4 In-Channel Snow ................................ 423
9.2.5 Permafrost ..................................... 430
9.2.6 Alluvial Environment ........................... 434
9.3 In-Channel Hydrology .................................. 435
9.3.1 Lateral Inflow ................................. 437
9.3.2 Channel Inflow ................................. 437
9.3.3 Vertical Water Exchanges ....................... 440
9.3.4 Storage in Channels ............................ 441
9.4 Flow Connectivity and Delivery ........................ 446
9.4.1 Flow Network Integration ....................... 446
9.4.2 Decoupling of Flow Network ..................... 448
9.4.3 Flow Delivery .................................. 451
References ................................................. 452
10 Basin Hydrology ............................................ 455
10.1 Basin Outflow Generation .............................. 455
10.1.1 The Roles of Snow .............................. 456
10.1.2 Meltwater from Glaciers ........................ 463
10.1.3 Rainfall Contribution .......................... 466
10.1.4 Groundwater Supply ............................. 469
10.1.5 Evaporation Losses ............................. 470
10.1.6 Permafrost Effects ............................. 470
10.1.7 Consequences of Basin Storage .................. 472
10.2 Streamflow Hydrograph ................................. 473
10.3 Streamflow Regimes .................................... 474
10.3.1 Nival Regime ................................... 475
10.3.2 Proglacial Regime .............................. 478
10.3.3 Pluvial Regime ................................. 479
10.3.4 Spring-Fed Regime .............................. 481
10.3.5 Prolacustrine Regime ........................... 481
10.3.6 Wetland Regime ................................. 483
10.4 Streamflow in Large Basins ............................ 484
10.4.1 Scaling Up to Large Rivers ..................... 486
10.4.2 Row Generation in a Large Basin: The Liard
River ......................................... 489
10.4.3 Regulated Discharge of Large Rivers ........... 493
10.4.4 Row in a Sub-continental Scale Basin:
Mackenzie Basin ............................... 497
10.5 Basin Water Balance ................................... 501
10.5.1 Considerations in Water Balance
Investigation .................................. 503
10.5.2 Regional Tendencies ............................ 504
10.5.3 Examples from Permafrost Environments .......... 508
10.6 Permafrost Basin Hydrology: General Remarks .......... 513
References ................................................. 516
Appendices .................................................... 521
Index ......................................................... 547
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