Foreword ..................................................... xiii
Preface ........................................................ xv
Acknowledgments .............................................. xvii
About the Book ................................................ xix
Authors ....................................................... xxi
1 Overview of Biomaterials ..................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 Biomaterials: From Then to Now .......................... 3
1.3 Impact of Biomaterials .................................. 9
1.4 Characteristics of Biomaterials ........................ 11
1.5 Classification of Biomaterials ......................... 14
1.5.1 Metallic Biomaterials ........................... 18
1.5.2 Ceramic Biomaterials ............................ 19
1.5.3 Polymeric Biomaterials .......................... 19
1.5.4 Composite Biomaterials .......................... 20
1.6 Surface Modification of Biomaterials ................... 20
1.7 Recent Trends in Biomaterials .......................... 22
1.7.1 Nanobiomaterials: A New Generation
Biomaterial ..................................... 22
1.7.2 Processing of Nanobiomaterials .................. 23
1.7.2.1 Sol-Gel Processing ..................... 23
1.7.2.2 Biomimetic Processing .................. 24
1.7.2.3 Tissue Engineering Approach ............ 26
1.8 Summary ................................................ 28
Glossary .................................................... 29
References .................................................. 32
2 Basics of Human Biology ..................................... 35
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 35
2.2 Structure and Function of the Human Body ............... 35
2.3 Chemical Level ......................................... 36
2.4 Cellular Level ......................................... 37
2.4.1 Nucleus ......................................... 38
2.4.2 Cytoplasm ....................................... 39
2.4.3 Cell Membrane ................................... 39
2.4.3.1 Transport across the Cell Membrane ..... 40
2.5 Tissue Level ........................................... 41
2.5.1 Epithelial Tissue ............................... 42
2.5.2 Connective Tissue ............................... 43
2.5.3 Muscle Tissue ................................... 43
2.5.4 Nerve Tissue .................................... 44
2.6 Organ Level ............................................ 44
2.6.1 Skin ............................................ 44
2.6.2 Bone ............................................ 46
2.7 System Level ........................................... 49
Glossary .................................................... 51
References .................................................. 54
Further Reading ............................................. 55
3 Degradation and Corrosion of Biomaterials ................... 57
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 57
3.2 Surface Properties ..................................... 57
3.3 Degradation of Biomaterials ............................ 62
3.4 Corrosion of Biomaterials .............................. 63
3.4.1 Galvanic Corrosion .............................. 66
3.4.2 Crevice Corrosion ............................... 66
3.4.3 Pitting Corrosion ............................... 66
3.4.4 Intergranular Corrosion ......................... 67
3.4.5 Stress Corrosion ................................ 67
3.4.6 Fretting Corrosion .............................. 68
3.5 Methods of Corrosion Testing ........................... 68
3.6 Biocompatibility of Implants ........................... 70
3.6.1 In Vitro Test Methods ........................... 71
3.6.2 In Vivo Test Methods ............................ 73
3.7 Case Study ............................................. 74
3.8 Summary ................................................ 77
Glossary .................................................... 77
References .................................................. 78
Further Reading ............................................. 79
4 Failure and Tribology of Biomaterials ....................... 81
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 81
4.2 Deformation Mechanics .................................. 82
4.2.1 Elastic Deformation ............................. 84
4.2.2 Plastic Deformation ............................. 85
4.3 Deformation Analysis of Biomaterials ................... 86
4.4 Fracture Mechanics ..................................... 88
4.5 Classification of Fracture ............................. 91
4.5.1 Brittle Fracture ................................ 92
4.5.2 Ductile Fracture ................................ 93
4.6 Brittle to Ductile Transition of Biomaterials .......... 94
4.7 Fracture Toughness ..................................... 96
4.8 Toughness Analysis of Biomaterials .................... 100
4.9 Fatigue Mechanics ..................................... 104
4.10 Fatigue Analysis of Biomaterials ...................... 107
4.11 Tribology ............................................. 109
4.11.1 Friction ....................................... 109
4.11.2 Wear ........................................... 111
4.12 Tribological Analysis of Biomaterials ................. 114
4.13 Case Study ............................................ 117
4.14 Summary ............................................... 119
Glossary ................................................... 119
References ................................................. 121
Further Reading ............................................ 121
5 Nanoscale Phenomena ........................................ 123
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 123
5.2 Nanoscale Phenomena ................................... 125
5.2.1 Properties at Nanoscale ........................ 126
5.3 Processing of Nanostructured Materials ................ 129
5.3.1 Тор-Down Methods ............................... 130
5.3.2 Bottom-Up Methods .............................. 134
5.4 Characterization Techniques ........................... 139
5.4.1 X-Ray Diffraction and Scattering Methods ....... 140
5.4.2 Electron Microscopy ............................ 141
5.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy ...................... 143
5.4.4 Light Scattering Techniques .................... 145
5.4.5 Gas Adsorption Measurements .................... 147
5.5 Environmental and Safety Aspects of Nanomaterials ..... 148
5.6 Summary ............................................... 155
Glossary ................................................... 155
References ................................................. 157
Further Reading ............................................ 159
6 Metallic Biomaterials ...................................... 161
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 161
6.2 Metallic Biomaterials ................................. 161
6.2.1 Stainless Steels ............................... 163
6.2.2 Cobalt-Chromium Alloys ......................... 168
6.2.3 Titanium and Titanium-Based Alloys ............. 169
6.2.4 Shape Memory Alloys ............................ 172
6.2.5 Dental Amalgam Alloys .......................... 175
6.2.6 Noble and Other Metals ......................... 175
6.3 Nanostructured Metallic Implants ...................... 176
6.4 Case Study ............................................ 179
6.5 Summary ............................................... 183
Glossary ................................................... 184
References ................................................. 185
7 Ceramic Biomaterials ....................................... 187
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 187
7.2 Bioceramics ........................................... 187
7.2.1 Nearly Inert Bioceramics ....................... 189
7.2.2 Porous Bioceramics ............................. 193
7.2.3 Bioactive Bioceramics .......................... 194
7.2.3.1 Bioactive Glasses ..................... 195
7.2.3.2 Calcium Phosphate Ceramics ............ 197
7.2.4 Bioresorbable Bioceramics ...................... 200
7.3 Nanostructured Bioceramics ............................ 201
7.4 Synthesis and Characterization of Nano Bioceramics .... 201
7.4.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Nano
Alumina ........................................ 202
7.4.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Nano
Calcium Phosphate Ceramics ..................... 208
7.5 Case Study ............................................ 211
7.6 Summary ............................................... 212
Glossary ................................................... 213
References ................................................. 214
8 Polymeric Biomaterials ..................................... 217
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 217
8.1.1 Polymerization Process ......................... 217
8.1.1.1 Addition Polymerization ............... 217
8.1.1.2 Condensation Polymerization ........... 218
8.1.2 Types of Polymers .............................. 219
8.1.3 Factors Influencing the Properties of
Polymers ....................................... 221
8.1.3.1 Molecular Weight ...................... 221
8.1.3.2 Molecular Structures .................. 221
8.1.3.3 Intermolecular Forces ................. 222
8.1.3.4 Polymer Crystallinity ................. 223
8.1.4 Polymer Characterization ....................... 224
8.2 Polymers as Biomaterials .............................. 224
8.3 Classification of Polymeric Biomaterials .............. 225
8.4 Naturally Derived Polymers ............................ 226
8.4.1 Collagen ....................................... 227
8.4.2 Gelatin ........................................ 228
8.4.3 Chitosan ....................................... 228
8.5 Synthetic Polymers .................................... 229
8.5.1 Nonbiodegradable Synthetic Polymers ............ 229
8.5.1.1 Poly(methyl methacrylate) ............. 229
8.5.1.2 Polyethylene) ......................... 230
8.5.1.3 Polyethylene terephthalate) ........... 230
8.5.2 Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers ............... 230
8.5.2.1 Poly(lactic acid) ..................... 230
8.5.2.2 Poly(glycolic acid) ................... 231
8.5.2.3 Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) ......... 231
8.6 Polymeric Nanobiomaterials ............................ 231
8.7 Processing of Polymer Nanofibers: Current Scenarios ... 232
8.7.1 Drawing ........................................ 233
8.7.2 Template Synthesis ............................. 233
8.7.3 Self-Assembly .................................. 237
8.7.4 Phase Separation ............................... 237
8.7.5 Electrospinning: A New Approach ................ 239
8.7.5.1 Experimental System ................... 240
8.7.5.2 Spinning Mechanism .................... 240
8.8 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibrous Scaffolds ............. 248
8.8.1 Collagen Nanofibrous Scaffold .................. 248
8.8.2 Gelatin Nanofibrous Scaffold ................... 250
8.8.3 Chitosan Nanofibrous Scaffold .................. 250
8.8.4 Poly(L-lactic acid) Nanofibrous Scaffold ....... 251
8.8.5 Poly(glycolic acid) Nanofibrous Scaffold ....... 252
8.8.6 Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Nanofibrous
Scaffold ....................................... 254
8.9 Biomedical Applications of Polymer Nanofibers ......... 254
8.9.1 Medical Prostheses ............................. 255
8.9.2 Dental Restoration ............................. 256
8.9.3 Wound Dressing ................................. 256
8.9.4 Drug Delivery .................................. 258
8.9.5 Tissue Scaffolds ............................... 259
8.10 Summary ............................................... 259
Glossary ................................................... 260
References ................................................. 261
9 Composite Biomaterials ..................................... 263
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 263
9.2 Classification of Composite Biomaterials .............. 265
9.2.1 Fibrous Composite Biomaterials ................. 265
9.2.2 Particulate Composite Biomaterials ............. 266
9.3 Biological Responses to Composite Biomaterials ........ 269
9.4 Biomedical Applications of Composite Biomaterials ..... 269
9.4.1 Bone Fracture Repair ........................... 271
9.4.1.1 Bone Plates and Screws ................ 273
9.4.2 Joint Replacements ............................. 275
9.4.2.1 Total Hip Replacement ................. 276
9.4.3 Bone Graft Materials ........................... 278
9.4.4 Dental Applications ............................ 280
9.4.4.1 Dental Restorative Materials .......... 281
9.4.4.2 Dental Post ........................... 282
9.4.4.3 Dental Arch Wires and Brackets ........ 283
9.5 Evolution of Nanocomposite Biomaterials ............... 284
9.6 Nanocomposites: A New Class of Nanobiomaterials ....... 285
9.7 Conventional Nanocomposites ........................... 286
9.8 Biomimetic Nanocomposites ............................. 288
9.9 Tissue-Engineered Nanocomposites ...................... 290
9.10 Nanocomposites for Growth Factor Delivery ............. 292
9.11 Summary ............................................... 295
Glossary ................................................... 295
References ................................................. 297
10 Nanobiomaterials for Tissue Regeneration ................... 299
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 299
10.2 Concept of Tissue Engineering ......................... 300
10.3 The Promise of Stem Cells ............................. 301
10.3.1 Mesenchymal Stem Cells ......................... 302
10.4 Nanobiomaterials: A New Generation Scaffolding
Material .............................................. 304
10.5 Characteristics of a Scaffold ......................... 305
10.6 Types of Scaffolding Materials ........................ 306
10.6.1 Ceramic Nanobiomaterials ....................... 307
10.6.2 Polymeric Nanobiomaterials ..................... 307
10.7 Scaffold Designing Using Nanobiomaterials ............. 308
10.8 Tissue-Engineered Ceramic Nanobiomaterials ............ 308
10.9 Tissue-Engineered Polymeric Nanobiomaterials .......... 311
10.10 Patterning of Biomaterials for Cell Engineering ...... 314
10.10.1 Chemical Patterning .......................... 316
10.10.1.1 Patterning by Microcontact
Printing ............................ 317
10.10.2 Topographical Patterning ..................... 320
10.10.2.1 Nanoimprint Lithography ........... 321
10.11 Tissue-Engineered Products: The Artificial Skin and
Cartilage ............................................ 324
10.12 Case Study ........................................... 326
10.13 Summary .............................................. 328
Glossary ................................................... 330
Index ......................................................... 335
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