Series Foreword ................................................ ix
Preface to the Third Edition ................................... xi
1 The Earth within the Solar System ............................ 1
1.1 The Sun and its constancy ............................... 1
1.2 Orbital variations in solar radiation ................... 4
1.3 Radiative equilibrium temperature ....................... 8
1.4 Thermal inertia of the atmosphere ...................... 10
1.5 Albedo ................................................. 14
1.6 The topography of the Earth's surface .................. 18
2 Composition and Physical Properties of the Ocean and
Atmosphere .................................................. 25
2.1 Evolution of the atmosphere and ocean .................. 25
2.2 Present-day composition of sea water ................... 29
2.3 Introduction to gases and liquids ...................... 31
2.4 Hydrostatic equilibrium ................................ 39
2.5 Adiabatic changes and potential temperature ............ 41
2.6 Vertical stability of the ocean and atmosphere ......... 46
3 Radiation, Temperature and Stability ........................ 53
3.1 Vertical variation of atmospheric constituents ......... 53
3.2 The attenuation of solar radiation ..................... 58
3.3 Absorption of planetary radiation ...................... 65
3.4 Vertical temperature profile and its relation to
radiation .............................................. 67
3.5 The absorption of solar radiation in the ocean ......... 75
3.6 Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles in the ocean ... 78
4 Water in the Atmosphere ..................................... 83
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 83
4.2 The moist atmosphere ................................... 84
4.3 Measurement and observation of water vapour ............ 86
4.4 Stability in a moist atmosphere ........................ 88
4.5 Processes of precipitation and evaporation: The
formation of clouds .................................... 94
4.6 Macroscopic processes in cloud formation .............. 106
5 Global Budgets of Heat, Water and Salt ..................... 111
5.1 The measurement of heat budgets at the surface ........ 111
5.2 Observations of surface heat fluxes and budgets ....... 117
5.3 The measurement of the water budget ................... 126
5.4 Observations of the water budget ...................... 127
5.5 The salt budget of the ocean .......................... 131
5.6 Temperature and salinity relationships in the
ocean ................................................. 134
5.7 Tracers in the ocean .................................. 141
6 Observations of Winds and Currents ......................... 147
6.1 Measurement of winds and currents ..................... 147
6.2 Scales of motion in the atmosphere and ocean .......... 159
6.3 Time averaged circulation ............................. 164
6.4 Time-dependent motion ................................. 175
7 The Influence of the Earth's Rotation on Fluid Motion ...... 181
7.1 An introduction to the Earth's rotation ............... 181
7.2 Inertial motion ....................................... 184
7.3 Pressure gradients and geostrophic motion ............. 187
7.4 Vorticity and circulation ............................. 197
7.5 The atmosphere and ocean boundary layers .............. 206
7.6 Equatorial winds and currents ......................... 210
8 Waves and Tides ............................................ 219
8.1 The spectrum of surface waves ......................... 219
8.2 Wind waves and swell .................................. 223
8.3 Long waves ............................................ 230
8.4 Internal waves ........................................ 234
8.5 Ocean tides ........................................... 237
8.6 Storm surges .......................................... 244
8.7 Atmospheric waves and tides ........................... 249
9 Energy Transfer in the Ocean-Atmosphere System ............. 253
9.1 Modes of energy in the ocean-atmosphere system ........ 253
9.2 The kinetic energy of the atmosphere and ocean ........ 259
9.3 Mechanisms of kinetic energy transfer ................. 262
9.4 General circulation of the atmosphere ................. 271
9.5 General circulation of the ocean ...................... 277
10 Mathematical Modelling of the Ocean and Atmosphere ......... 283
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 283
10.2 Scientific modelling: A simple model of the surface
layer of the ocean .................................... 284
10.3 A dynamical model of the ocean surface layer .......... 288
10.4 Numerical solutions of mathematical models ............ 291
10.5 Numerical solutions for momentum on a rotating
Earth ................................................. 293
10.6 Atmospheric and climate general circulation models .... 295
10.7 Global ocean models ................................... 301
10.8 Observations of the ocean and atmosphere .............. 305
11 Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction ............................... 315
11.1 Air-sea interaction: An introduction .................. 315
11.2 Seasonal anomalies of the ocean-land-atmosphere
system ................................................ 322
11.3 Interannual fluctuations in the ocean-atmosphere
system ................................................ 326
11.4 Decadal variations in the ocean-atmosphere system ..... 332
12 Climate Change ............................................. 337
12.1 Past climate observations ............................. 337
12.2 Mechanisms of climate change .......................... 341
12.3 Current climate change ................................ 346
12.4 Understanding recent climate change ................... 350
12.5 Predicting future climate ............................. 351
Problems ...................................................... 353
Glossary ...................................................... 369
General Reading ............................................... 377
Further Reading and References ................................ 379
Figure Sources ................................................ 385
Appendices
A Standard International (SI) Units ....................... 391
В SI Unit Prefixes ........................................ 391
Index ......................................................... 393
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