1 Introduction ................................................. 1
1.1 Documentation ........................................... 1
1.2 Units and Physical Constants ............................ 2
1.3 Special Relativity ...................................... 3
1.4 Probability and Statistics .............................. 7
1.5 The Structure of Matter at the Microscopic Scale ........ 9
1.6 Nuclei and Nuclear Decay ............................... 16
1.6.1 The Beta Decay .................................. 17
1.6.2 The Alpha Decay ................................. 18
1.6.3 The Gamma Decay ................................. 19
1.6.4 Electron Capture and Internal Conversion ........ 19
1.6.5 The Radioactive Decay Law ....................... 20
1.6.6 The Nuclear Level Diagram ....................... 21
1.7 Exercises .............................................. 22
References .................................................. 22
2 Interactions of Particles in Matter ......................... 23
2.1 Cross Section and Mean Free Path ....................... 23
2.2 Energy Loss of a Charged Particle due to Its
Interaction with the Electrons ......................... 25
2.3 Other Electromagnetic Interactions of Charged
Particles .............................................. 31
2.4 Interactions of X-Rays and Gamma Rays in Matter ........ 39
2.5 Interactions of Particles in Matter due to the Strong
Force .................................................. 45
2.6 Neutrino Interactions .................................. 49
2.7 Illustrations of the Interactions of Particles ......... 51
2.8 Exercises .............................................. 53
References .................................................. 53
3 Natural and Man-Made Sources of Radiation ................... 55
3.1 Natural Sources of Radiation ........................... 55
3.2 Units of Radiation and Radiation Protection ............ 59
3.3 Electrostatic Accelerators ............................. 62
3.4 Cyclotrons ............................................. 65
3.5 The Quest for the Highest Energy, Synchrotrons and
Colliders .............................................. 72
3.6 Linear Accelerators .................................... 80
3.7 Secondary Beams ........................................ 90
3.8 Applications of Accelerators ........................... 93
3.9 Outlook ................................................ 99
3.10 Exercises ............................................. 102
References ................................................. 102
4 Detectors Based on Ionisation in Gases ..................... 105
4.1 Introduction to Detectors for Subatomic Particles ..... 105
4.2 Ionisation and Charge Transport in Gases .............. 107
4.3 Ionisation Chambers ................................... 111
4.4 Counters with Gas Amplification ....................... 116
4.5 Applications of Counters with Gas Amplification ....... 126
4.5.1 Proportional Counters for X-Ray Detection ...... 127
4.5.2 Gas Counters for the Tracking of High-Energy
Charged Particles .............................. 128
4.5.3 Applications of Gas Counters in Homeland
Security ....................................... 135
4.6 Recent Developments in Counters Based on Gas
Amplification ......................................... 135
4.6.1 Micro-strip Gas Counters (MSGC) ................ 136
4.6.2 GEM and MICROMEGAS Counters .................... 137
4.6.3 Resistive Plate Chambers ....................... 139
4.7 Exercises ............................................. 141
References ................................................. 141
5 Detectors Based on Ionisation in Semiconductor Materials ... 143
5.1 Introduction to Semiconductors ........................ 143
5.2 The Semiconductor Junction as a Detector .............. 150
5.3 Silicon Semiconductor Detectors ....................... 156
5.4 Germanium Semiconductor Detectors ..................... 159
5.5 Other Semiconductor Detector Materials ................ 161
5.6 Exercises ............................................. 164
References ................................................. 165
6 Detectors Based on Scintillation ........................... 167
6.1 Introduction to Scintillators ......................... 167
6.2 Organic Scintillators ................................. 168
6.3 Inorganic Scintillators ............................... 171
6.4 Photodetectors ........................................ 177
6.5 Using Scintillators in the Nuclear Energy Range ....... 185
6.6 Applications of Scintillators in High-Energy
Physics ............................................... 192
6.7 Applications of Scintillators in Medicine ............. 198
6.8 Exercises ............................................. 207
References ................................................. 207
7 Neutron Detection .......................................... 209
7.1 Slow Neutron Detection ................................ 209
7.2 Neutron Detectors for Nuclear Reactors ................ 213
7.3 Fast Neutron Detection ................................ 216
7.3.1 Detectors for Fast Neutrons Based on
Moderation ..................................... 216
7.3.2 Detectors Based on the Observation of the
Recoil Nuclei .................................. 218
7.4 Exercises ............................................. 224
Reference .................................................. 224
8 Electronics for Particle Detectors ......................... 225
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 225
8.2 Impulse Response and Transfer Function ................ 230
8.3 Amplifiers for Particle Detectors ..................... 238
8.4 The Thermal Noise of a Resistor ....................... 246
8.5 Resistor and Transistor Noise in Amplifiers ........... 253
8.5.1 Noise Contribution of a Parallel Resistor or
a Series Resistor .............................. 254
8.5.2 Noise Due to the First Transistor .............. 258
8.6 Shot Noise ............................................ 262
8.7 Summary and Conclusions ............................... 266
8.8 Exercises ............................................. 268
References ................................................. 269
Solutions to Exercises ........................................ 271
Annex 1: Physical Constants ................................... 295
Annex 2: International System of Units ........................ 296
Annex 3: Atomic and Molecular Properties of Materials ......... 297
Annex 4: Periodic Table of Elements ........................... 299
Annex 5: Electromagnetic Relations ............................ 300
Annex 6: Commonly Used Radioactive Sources .................... 302
Index ......................................................... 303
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