Introduction ................................................ xxiii
Yves Mouton
Part 1 Problems Regarding Organic Materials and
Sustainable Development ................................. 1
Chapter 1 Organic materials used in Construction at the Dawn
of the Third Millennium .............................. 3
Michel de Longcamp and Yves Mouton
1.1 Specifically polymer-based products ........................ 5
1.1.1 Plastics, rubbers and geosynthetics ................. 5
1.1.2 Resins, coatings, paintings ......................... 8
1.1.3 Incorporated components: organic fiber and
concrete adjuvants ................................. 10
1.2 Bitumen and related products .............................. 10
1.3 Organic matrix composite ................................. 11
1.4 Timber .................................................... 12
1.5 Conclusion ................................................ 13
1.6 Bibliography .............................................. 13
Chapter 2 Sustainable Development Issues Regarding Organic
Materials used in Civil Engineering ................. 15
Agnes Jullien
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 15
2.2 Sustainable development: definitions, general issues
and issues in construction ................................ 16
2.2.1 The political concept .............................. 16
2.2.2 Possible actions ................................... 17
2.2.3 Environmental considerations ....................... 18
2.2.4 Towards normative reference - certification of
construction works ................................. 21
2.3 Civil engineering materials in their environment .......... 23
2.3.1 Organic materials development practices ............ 23
2.3.2 From resources to construction: matter
transformation ..................................... 24
2.3.3 Durability: the unquestionable effect of time ...... 25
2.3.4 About material lifecycle ........................... 25
2.4 Sustainable development and civil engineering ............. 28
2.4.1 Links between study domains of material and
construction work .................................. 28
2.4.2 Temporal and spatial scales to be taken into
account for the environment ........................ 30
2.4.3 Environmental assessment of materials lifecycle
of ................................................. 32
2.5 Conclusion ................................................ 34
2.6 Bibliography .............................................. 34
Chapter 3 Health Risks of Organic Materials used in
Construction: What is the Situation Today? ......... 37
Guy Auburtin
3.1 Problems concerning the health risks, and available
tools ..................................................... 37
3.2 Available data in organic construction materials .......... 41
3.2.1 State of knowledge on the risks related to
bitumens ........................................... 41
3.2.2 Quality of inside air and health qualification
of construction materials .......................... 44
3.3 Conclusion ................................................ 46
3.4 Bibliography .............................................. 47
Chapter 4 Ecological Impacts of Organic Construction
Materials: What is the Situation Today? ............. 51
Yves Perrodin
4.1 Problems and available tools .............................. 51
4.2 Works available in the field of organic construction
materials ................................................. 54
4.3 Prospects for organic materials used in construction ...... 56
4.4 Conclusion ................................................ 58
4.5 Bibliography .............................................. 58
4.6 For more information ...................................... 59
Part 2 Organic Polymers as Building Materials ................. 63
Chapter 5 Organic Polymers .................................... 65
Jacques Verdu and Bruno Fayolle
5.1 Introduction .............................................. 65
5.1.1 Brief history ...................................... 65
5.1.2 Polymers among materials ........................... 66
5.2 Polymer structures ........................................ 69
5.2.1 Three structure scales ............................. 69
5.2.2 Molecular structure ................................ 70
5.2.3 Order in the chain - copolymers, stereoisomers,
conformations ...................................... 74
5.2.4 Macromolecular architectures: thermoplastics and
thermosets ......................................... 78
5.2.5 Structure on a macromolecular scale ................ 80
5.2.6 Structure on a supramolecular scale ................ 86
5.3 Additives and fillers ..................................... 94
5.3.1 Additives .......................................... 94
5.3.2 Fillers ............................................ 95
5.4 Processing properties ..................................... 96
5.4.1 Thermoplastics ..................................... 96
5.4.2 Thermosetting polymers ............................. 98
5.5 Mechanical properties ..................................... 99
5.5.1 Elastomers ......................................... 99
5.5.2 Mechanical properties of glassy amorphous
polymers .......................................... 103
5.5.3 Mechanical properties of semi-crystalline
polymers .......................................... 109
5.6 Plasticizers and impact modifiers ........................ 112
5.6.1 Plasticizers ...................................... 112
5.6.2 Impact modifiers .................................. 114
5.7 Properties of a few industrial linear polymers ........... 117
5.8 Conclusion ............................................... 118
5.9 Bibliography ............................................. 119
5.10 More information ......................................... 120
Chapter 6 Formulation of Plastics ............................ 121
Michel de Longcamp
6.1 Introduction ............................................. 121
6.2 Ingredients used for plastic formulation ................. 123
6.2.1 Polymers .......................................... 123
6.2.2 Working agents .................................... 123
6.2.3 Cross-linking agents .............................. 124
6.2.4 Stabilizers ....................................... 124
6.2.5 Plasticizers, non-working agents .................. 126
6.2.6 Various organic additives ......................... 127
6.2.7 Fillers ........................................... 129
6.3 Conclusion ............................................... 129
Chapter 7 Ageing and Durability of Organic Polymers .......... 131
Jacques Verdu and Bruno Fayolle
7.1 Definitions, general comments ............................ 131
7.1.1 Ageing ............................................ 131
7.1.2 Lifetime .......................................... 131
7.1.3 Extrapolation principle ........................... 132
7.1.4 Induction period .................................. 133
7.1.5 Different types of ageing ......................... 135
7.2 Physical ageing .......................................... 135
7.2.1 Physical ageing by structural relaxation (broad
meaning) .......................................... 135
7.2.2 Ageing by solvent absorption ...................... 138
7.2.3 Ageing by additive migration ...................... 139
7.3 Chemical ageing - general aspects ........................ 143
7.3.1 The two large families of chemical ageing
processes ......................................... 143
7.3.2 Diffusional phenomena in chemical ageing .......... 148
7.3.3 Towards a non-empirical lifetime prediction ....... 153
7.3.4 Oxidation - general aspects ....................... 154
7.3.5 Stabilization ..................................... 157
7.4 Thermochemical ageing .................................... 159
7.4.1 Intrinsic thermal stability ....................... 159
7.4.2 Oxidative ageing .................................. 161
7.4.3 Lifetime in thermal ageing ........................ 162
7.5 Photochemical ageing ..................................... 164
7.5.1. Introduction: solar radiation ..................... 164
7.5.2 "Intrinsic" photochemistry and photo-oxidation;
photo-oxidation and thermo-oxidationthermo-
oxidation ......................................... 165
7.5.3 Photostabilisation. UV screens .................... 167
7.5.4 Towards a lifetime prediction in photoageing ...... 168
7.6 Hydrolytic ageing ........................................ 169
7.6.1 Introduction ...................................... 169
7.6.2 Quasi-irreversible hydrolysis ..................... 170
7.6.3 Reversible hydrolysis ............................. 172
7.6.4 Role of solutes in water .......................... 173
7.6.5 Secondary effects of hydrolysis: composites ....... 174
7.6.6 Stabilization ..................................... 175
7.7 Conclusion ............................................... 176
7.8 Bibliography ............................................. 177
7.9 More information ......................................... 177
Chapter 8 Fireproofing polymeric materials: problems and
solutions .......................................... 179
Serge Bourbigot
8.1 Introduction ............................................. 179
8.2 Combustion principles .................................... 181
8.3 Action in gas phase ...................................... 182
8.4 Cooling and ceramization ................................. 183
8.5 The concept of intumescence .............................. 184
8.6 Nanocomposites ........................................... 184
8.7 Intumescent coatings for protecting steel ................ 185
8.8 Conclusion ............................................... 187
8.9 Bibliography ............................................. 187
8.10 For more information ..................................... 188
Chapter 9 Organic Materials, Waste and Recycling ............. 189
Vincent Verney
9.1 Introduction ............................................. 189
9.2 Assessment ............................................... 190
9.2.1 Definitions ....................................... 190
9.2.2 Plastics: facts and figures ....................... 191
9.2.3 Legislation ....................................... 193
9.2.4 Recycling and valorization channels ............... 194
9.2.5 Current proportion of recycling in waste
disposal .......................................... 195
9.3 Scientific aspects ....................................... 197
9.3.1 The concept of lifecycle .......................... 197
9.3.2 Concept of adequacy, application duration/
lifetime durability ............................... 198
9.4 The construction sector .................................. 199
9.5 Conclusion ............................................... 201
9.6 Bibliography ............................................. 201
Part 3 Manufactured Products ................................. 203
Chapter 10 Geosynthetics and Waterproofing .................... 205
Philippe Mestat
10.1 Waterproofing in civil engineering ....................... 205
10.2 Flow in civil engineering materials ...................... 208
10.2.1 Equations of porous media mechanics ............... 208
10.2.2 Permeability coefficients ......................... 210
10.3 Characteristics of infiltration liquids .................. 213
10.4 Choice of waterproofing device ........................... 214
10.5 Advantages of geosynthetics .............................. 216
10.5.1 Geosynthetic types ................................ 216
10.5.2 Geosynthetics and their function in
constructions ..................................... 216
10.5.3 Reinforcement and protection function of
geosynthetics ..................................... 220
10.5.4 Hydraulic performances of geosynthetics ........... 223
10.5.5 Geosynthetic drainage functions ................... 225
10.6 Waterproofing functions of geosynthetics ................. 226
10.6.1 Geocomposite and geomembrane clay liners .......... 226
10.6.2 Geomembranes ...................................... 226
10.6.3 Synthetic geomembranes ............................ 227
10.6.4 Bituminous geomembranes ........................... 229
10.6.5 Geosynthetic clay liners .......................... 229
10.7 Geosynthetics layering in construction ................... 232
10.7.1 Assembling geosynthetic layers .................... 232
10.7.2 Connecting geosynthetic layers to constructions ... 235
10.7.3 Stability of geosynthetic fabrics on slopes ....... 236
10.8 Product specificity and waterproofing systems ............ 237
10.8.1 Composition of geosynthetic waterproofing
devices (DEG) ..................................... 237
10.8.2 Composition of a draining system with
geosynthetics (DDG) ............................... 239
10.8.3 Composition of a waterproofing and drainage
system with geosynthetics (DEDG) .................. 239
10.8.4 Composition of a waterproofing device by
geosynthetic clay liners (DEGB) ................... 241
10.8.5 Analysis and dimensioning of geosynthetic based
structures ........................................ 242
10.9 Numerical modeling ....................................... 242
10.9.1 Mechanical behavior ............................... 242
10.9.2 Mechanical behavior modeling by finite elements ... 244
10.9.3 Numerical modeling of hydraulic behavior .......... 247
10.10 Sustainability .......................................... 250
10.11 Testing, exploitation, maintenance, repair .............. 252
10.11.1 Levels of testing ................................ 252
10.11.2 Evidence of loss of waterproofing ................ 253
10.11.3 Methods for detecting defects .................... 255
10.11.4 Repairing constructions and autocicatrization .... 256
10.12 Watertight barriers for waste storage sites ............. 257
10.12.1 Designing a waste storage site ................... 257
10.12.2 Foundation of a waste storage site ............... 259
10.12.3 Waste storage site slope ......................... 259
10.12.4 Waste storage site covers ........................ 260
10.12.5 Using geosynthetic materials in waste storage
sites ............................................ 260
10.12.6 Numerical modeling of waste storage sites ........ 261
10.13 Conclusions and perspectives ............................ 262
10.14 Bibliography ............................................ 263
10.15 More information ........................................ 267
Chapter 11 Waterproofing Buildings: The Point of View of
an Expert .......................................... 269
Gerard Hémond
11.1 Introduction ............................................. 269
11.2 Initial analyses ......................................... 270
11.3 Initial obligations ...................................... 272
11.4 Questions of definition .................................. 272
11.5 Possible solutions ....................................... 273
11.5.1. Watertight concrete .............................. 274
11.5.2 Mineral products .................................. 275
11.5.3 "Black" products .................................. 275
11.5.4 Organic and synthetic materials ................... 276
11.5.5 Complementary products: expansion joints .......... 280
11.6 The future of these recent technologies .................. 282
11.6.1 Products .......................................... 282
11.6.2 Applicators ....................................... 282
Chapter 12 Elastomers and Rubbers used in Civil
Engineering ........................................ 283
Michel Fragnet
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 283
12.1.1 Elastomers ........................................ 283
12.1.2 The products in question: field presentation ...... 286
12.1.3 Terminology and vocabulary peculiar to this
field ............................................. 287
12.2 Bearings ................................................. 288
12.2.1 Role and functions of bearings .................... 288
12.2.2 Historical background ............................. 289
12.2.3 Laminated or strip elastomeric bearings ........... 290
12.2.4 Elastomeric pot bearings .......................... 295
12.2.5 Bearings with polyurethane discs .................. 298
12.3 Expansion joints ......................................... 298
12.3.1 Role and function of a road bridge expansion
joint ............................................. 298
12.3.2 The various product families ...................... 301
12.3.3 Method of elaboration, manufacturing principle .... 302
12.3.4 Advantages and limitations: durability ............ 303
12.4 Sealingv joints ........................................... 304
12.5 Bridges deck waterproofing ............................... 306
12.5.1 Role and function of a waterproofing .............. 306
12.5.2 The various family products. Method of
elaboration and fabrication ....................... 306
12.5.3 Advantages and limits: durability ................. 307
12.6 Anti-seismic devices ..................................... 308
12.7 General reflections on sustainable development ........... 309
12.8 Conclusions .............................................. 310
12.9 Acknowledgements ......................................... 310
12.10 Bibliography ............................................ 311
Part 4 Composite Materials, Tensile Structures, Textile
Architecture and Timber ............................... 313
Chapter 13 Composite Materials and Construction ............... 315
Jean-François Caron
13.1 Introduction ............................................. 315
13.2 Composites used in construction .......................... 317
13.2.1 General remarks ................................... 317
13.2.2 Fibers ............................................ 317
13.2.3 Different available fiber architecture ............ 320
13.2.4 Matrices .......................................... 320
13.2.5 Transformation processes and semi-products for
construction ...................................... 321
13.3 Applications today ....................................... 322
13.3.1 Pre-stressing and cable staying in composite
materials ......................................... 323
13.3.2 Bars for reinforced concrete ...................... 324
13.3.3 Composite beams for crossing ...................... 325
13.3.4 Composite bridge decks ............................ 325
13.3.5 Sandwich roofs .................................... 326
13.3.6 Some examples of constructions .................... 326
13.4 Perspectives and projects ................................ 328
13.4.1 Composite crossings and footbridges ............... 329
13.4.2 Composite gridshells .............................. 332
13.5 Recommendations, norms and standards ..................... 334
13.6 Composites and the environment: reflections ......... 335
13.7 Conclusion .......................................... 336
13.8 Bibliography ........................................ 336
Chapter 14 Textile Materials: Architectural Applications ...... 339
Bernard Maurin and Romain Ferrari
14.1 Introduction ............................................. 339
14.2 Architectural textile membranes .......................... 340
14.2.1 Different fabric types ............................ 340
14.2.2 Conceptual design ................................. 341
14.3 Tensile membranes engineering ............................ 343
14.3.1 Two keywords: curvature and pretension ............ 343
14.3.2 Form-finding ...................................... 344
14.3.3 Behavior under external loads ..................... 345
14.3.4. Fabric patterning ................................ 346
14.4 Eco-design in textile architecture ....................... 347
14.4.1 Fabric recycling .................................. 347
14.4.2 Thermal aspects ................................... 349
14.5 Conclusion and perspectives .............................. 350
14.6 Bibliography ............................................. 351
Chapter 15 Wood ............................................... 353
Rémy Mouterde
15.1 From the thinkable, to the possible ...................... 354
15.2 Biological structure ..................................... 355
15.2.1 Growth ............................................ 356
15.2.2 From the plank to the molecules ................... 357
15.2.3 Composition ....................................... 360
15.2.4 Characteristics of physical behavior .............. 363
15.3 Industrial approach of material .......................... 371
15.3.1 Improvement of natural material ................... 371
15.3.2 Derivative products ............................... 374
15.3.3 Evolution of the glues ............................ 380
15.3.4 Developments in constructive technologies ......... 381
15.4 Conclusion ............................................... 385
15.5 Bibliography ........................................ 386
15.6 More information .................................... 386
Part 5 Organic Binder-based Materials ........................ 389
Chapter 16 Bitumen, Road Construction and Sustainable
Development ........................................ 391
Bernard Lombardi
16.1 A bit of history ......................................... 391
16.1.1 An ancient history ................................ 391
16.1.2 First definitions ................................. 392
16.1.3 Bitumen in contemporary times ..................... 393
16.1.4 Bitumen in road engineering ....................... 393
16.2 Bitumen and bitumen binders today ........................ 395
16.2.1 Manufacturing bitumen ............................. 395
16.2.2 Bitumen composition ............................... 396
16.2.3 Simple characterization of bitumen ................ 397
16.3 Bitumen, environment and health. REACH regulation ........ 399
16.3.1 Relating to the REACH regulation .................. 399
16.3.2 Bitumen and the REACH regulation .................. 400
16.3.3 Bitumen and hygiene, safety and the environment ... 401
16.4 Bitumen and sustainable development ...................... 403
16.5 Conclusion ............................................... 404
16.6 Bibliography ............................................. 405
16.7 More information ......................................... 405
Chapter 17 Industrial Mortars and Repairing Concrete
Products ........................................... 407
Pierre Boulanger and Paulo Goncalo
17.1 Definitions .............................................. 407
17.2 The contribution of organic compounds in formulating
industrial mortars ....................................... 408
17.2.1 Contributions for usage ........................... 408
17.2.2 Contributions for expected performances ........... 410
17.3 Repairing concretes ...................................... 413
17.3.1 Norm EN 1504 ...................................... 413
17.3.2 Implementation of repair strategies ............... 414
17.3.3 Families repair products .......................... 417
17.4 Conclusion ............................................... 418
17.5 For more information ..................................... 418
Chapter 18 Waterborne Paints to Limit VOC Emissions:
Interests and Limits ............................... 419
Emmanuel Aragon and André Margaillan
18.1 Introduction ............................................. 419
18.2 Definition of paint ...................................... 420
18.3 Main features and properties of waterborne paints ........ 421
18.3.1 History of the development of waterborne paints ... 421
18.3.2 Various types of paint in aqueous phase ........... 421
18.3.3 Film formation process ............................ 422
18.3.4 Various product families .......................... 422
18.4 Advantages and disadvantages for using water as a
solvent .................................................. 423
18.4.1 Advantages ........................................ 423
18.4.2 Disadvantages ..................................... 424
18.4.3 Health and safety hazards ......................... 426
18.4.4 Conclusion ........................................ 426
18.5 Advantages and disadvantages of using water-based
paints in relation to alternative solutions .............. 427
18.5.1 Powder coatings ................................... 427
18.5.2 Radiation curing paints ........................... 427
18.5.3 High solids paints ................................ 428
18.6 Conclusion: the need for an eco-assessment ............... 428
18.7 Bibliography ............................................. 429
Part 6 Organic Compounds Built-in into Cement Matrices ....... 431
Chapter 19 Rheological Admixtures ............................. 433
Nicolas Roussel
19.1 History of rheological admixtures ........................ 433
19.2 Macroscopic behavior and microscopic interactions in a
cementitious suspension .................................. 435
19.2.1 Components and composition of cement
suspensions ....................................... 436
19.2.2 Distant inter-particle interactions ............... 437
19.2.3 Contact type interactions ......................... 441
19.2.4 Hydrodynamic effects .............................. 442
19.3 Conclusion ............................................... 444
19.4 Bibliography ............................................. 445
Chapter 20 Contributions of Organic Admixtures in
Construction Processes ............................. 447
François Cussigh
20.1 Introduction ............................................. 447
20.2 The situation without the contribution of organic
chemistry ................................................ 447
20.3 Contribution of superplasticizers ........................ 448
20.4 Example of pre-stressed grouting ......................... 448
20.5 High performance concretes (HPC) ......................... 449
20.6 Self-compacting concretes ................................ 450
20.7 Ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete
(UHPFC) .................................................. 453
20.8 Currently used concretes ................................. 454
20.9 Perspectives ............................................. 454
20.10 Bibliography ............................................ 455
Chapter 21 Organic Fibers in Cementitious Materials ........... 457
Laetitia d'Aloia-Schwartzentruber
21.1 Introduction ............................................. 457
21.1.1 Characteristics of main fibers .................... 458
21.1.2 Fiber reinforced cement material, application in
civil engineering ................................. 459
21.2 The use of organic fibers in cementitious materials ...... 460
21.2.1 The contribution of organic fibers ................ 460
21.2.2 The most used organic fibers in cementitious
materials ......................................... 461
21.2.3 Organic fiber/cement material composite ........... 462
21.3 A return to the use of some organic fibers ............... 463
21.3.1 Polypropylene fibers .............................. 463
21.3.2 Plant fibers ...................................... 472
21.4 Contribution of organic fibers to recycling .............. 475
21.5 Conclusion ............................................... 476
21.6 Bibliography ............................................. 478
Part 7 Problems Specific to Organic Materials: Adhesive
Bonding and Characterization Methods .................. 483
Chapter 22 Adhesive Bonding, a Method for Construction ........ 485
Thierry Chaussadent
22.1 Preliminary thoughts ..................................... 485
22.2 Introduction ............................................. 486
22.3 Theory of adhesion and practical conclusions ............. 487
22.3.1 Microscopic aspects of adhesion ................... 487
22.3.2 Macroscopic aspects. Adhesive strength and
mechanical properties of adhesive bonds ........... 489
22.4 Adhesive formulation and implementation .................. 491
22.4.1 Adhesives used in construction .................... 491
22.4.2 Implementation of adhesion techniques ............. 492
22.5 Ageing of adhesive bonds ................................. 494
22.5.1 Microscopic aspects ............................... 495
22.5.2 Macroscopic aspects ............................... 496
22.6 Paths for progress in the development of adhesive
bonding techniques in civil engineering .................. 497
22.6.1 Limitation of mechanical stresses ................. 497
22.6.2 Adhesive choice and implantation management ....... 498
22.6.3. Predicting durability and in situ monitoring ..... 499
22.7 Conclusion ............................................... 499
22.8 Bibliography ............................................. 500
Chapter 23 Strengthening Concrete Structures by Externally
Bonded Composite Materials ......................... 503
Marc Cuiertant
23.1 Introduction ............................................. 503
23.2 Composite materials for repairing and strengthening
concrete structures ...................................... 505
23.3 History and background of structural strengthening
techniques by externally bonded composites ............... 509
23.4 Mechanics of externally bonded FRP ....................... 510
23.4.1 Flexural strengthening ............................ 510
23.4.2 Shear strengthening ............................... 514
23.4.3 Strengthening of compression elements ............. 516
23.5 Installation of FRP strengthening systems ................ 519
23.5.1 Control of the strength of the concrete
substrate ......................................... 519
23.5.2 Surface preparation ............................... 520
23.5.3 FRP installation .................................. 521
23.5.4 Finishing or protective coats ..................... 524
23.6 Conclusion. Future of strengthening concrete structures
by externally bonded composite materials ................. 524
23.7 Bibliography ............................................. 525
Chapter 24 Durability of FRP Strengthened Concrete Specimens
under Accelerated Ageing ........................... 529
Karim Benzarti, Marc Quiertant, Sylvain
Chataigner and Christophe Aubagnac
24.1 Introduction ............................................. 529
24.2 Experimental results and discussions ..................... 530
24.2.1 First set of experiments: Investigation on FRP
strengthened concrete slabs using the pull-off
test .............................................. 530
24.2.2 Second set of experiments: Investigation on FRP
strengthened concrete blocks using both the
pull-off test and the single lap shear test ....... 537
24.3 Conclusion ............................................... 550
24.4 Acknowledgements ......................................... 550
24.5 Bibliography ............................................. 550
Chapter 25 Characterization of Organic Materials used in
Civil Engineering by Chemical and Physico-
chemical Methods ................................... 553
Fabienne Farcas
25.1 Bituminous binders ....................................... 553
25.1.1 Pure bitumen ...................................... 554
25.1.2 Special bitumens .................................. 559
25.1.3 Polyphosphoric acid modified bitumens ............. 563
25.2 Anti-corrosive paints .................................... 565
25.2.1 Ageing of chlorinated rubber binders .............. 566
25.2.2 Ageing of polyurethane, urethane-acrylic and
alkyd-urethane paint binders ...................... 569
25.3 Organic admixture in cementing materials ................. 572
25.3.1 Evolution of "classic" superplasticizers in
hardened cement pastes ............................ 572
25.3.2 New generation admixtures ......................... 576
25.4 Conclusion ............................................... 578
25.5 Bibliography ............................................. 578
Part 8 Organic Materials, Construction, Architecture,
Creation and Sustainable Development ................... 583
Chapter 26 Organic Materials and Sustainable Architectural
Design ............................................. 585
Michel Paulin
26.1 A context of accelerated evolution ....................... 585
26.1.1 Post-war practices ................................ 585
26.1.2 The first oil crisis .............................. 586
26.1.3 New modernity and heritage ........................ 586
26.1.4 The era for sustainable development ............... 587
26.2 New designer practices ................................... 588
26.2.1 The revival of the systemic approach .............. 588
26.2.2 Performance design ................................ 589
26.2.3 Responsibility evolution .......................... 589
26.2.4 Legal complexity .................................. 590
26.2.5 NTIC on projects .................................. 590
26.3 New approaches to materials and structures ............... 591
26.3.1. A new status for materials in society ............ 591
26.3.2 The lack of image for organic materials ........... 591
26.3.3 The specificity of composite materials ............ 592
26.3.4 Double approach: low-tech and high-tech ........... 592
26.3.5 Irruption of the nanoscopic scale ................. 593
26.4 What are the hopes for architectural creations? .......... 593
26.4.1 Organic materials and the structure of the
buildings ......................................... 594
26.4.2 Organic materials for building enclosures ......... 595
26.4.3 For the future? ................................... 597
Chapter 27 Specific Contributions of Viscous Behavior
Materials in Construction .......................... 599
Bernard Halphen
27.1 Introduction ............................................. 599
27.2 The viscosity of fresh concrete: a property to be taken
into account ............................................. 600
27.3 Viscosity and inj ection products ........................ 602
27.4 Viscosity and self-repair ................................ 603
27.5 Viscosity and absorption ................................. 604
27.6 Conclusion ............................................... 607
27.7 Bibliography ............................................. 607
Chapter 28 Organics in Construction - How Far? ................ 609
Henri Van Damme
28.1 A structured, decorated and communicating skin ........... 610
28.2 An energy collecting surface ............................. 611
28.3 A self-cleaning and depolluting envelope ................. 612
28.4 A self-repairing envelope ................................ 612
28.5 An air-conditioning envelope ............................. 613
28.6 Conclusion ............................................... 614
28.7 Bibliography ............................................. 615
Chapter 29 Thoughts on the Futurology in Research and
Development of Innovative Materials ................ 617
Jean Billard
29.1 Difficulty of prediction ................................. 617
29.2 The current state of things .............................. 618
29.3 Extrapolation attempts ................................... 619
29.3.1 Primary resources ................................. 620
29.3.2 Some social tendencies ............................ 621
29.3.3 The complexity of technical systems ............... 621
29.3.4 Research .......................................... 622
29.4 Futurology ............................................... 626
29.5 Conclusion ............................................... 627
29.6 Bibliography ............................................. 628
Conclusion .................................................... 631
François Buyle-Bodin
Acronyms and Initials ......................................... 639
List of Authors ............................................... 645
Index ......................................................... 649
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