List of Contributors ........................................... xi
Preface ...................................................... xiii
Glossary ....................................................... xv
PART ONE SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF CANADA'S
COLD ENVIRONMENTS ............................................... 1
1 Cold Canada and the Changing Cryosphere ...................... 3
Hugh French and Olav Slaymaker
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 3
1.2 The Cryosphere .......................................... 4
1.3 Cold Canada ............................................ 10
1.4 Cold Climates .......................................... 15
1.5 Arctic and Alpine Considerations ....................... 19
1.6 Canada's Physical Geography ............................ 21
References .................................................. 24
Discussion Questions ........................................ 25
Some Useful Internet Sources ................................ 25
2 The Late Quaternary Glariation of Northern Canada ........... 26
David Evans
2.1 Introduction ........................................... 26
2.2 Landforms and the Late Quaternary Glaciations .......... 26
2.3 Late Quaternary Sea level Change and its Relationship
to Glaciation History .................................. 39
2.4 Late Quaternary Glaciation and Deglacial History ....... 39
2.5 Wider Implications of Canadian Arctic Ice Sheet
Dynamics ............................................... 42
2.6 Holocene Glacial Events ................................ 44
References .................................................. 44
Discussion Questions ........................................ 47
Some Useful Internet Sources ................................ 47
3 The Evolution of Polar Desert and Tundra Ecosystems ......... 48
Konrad Gajewski
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 48
3.2 The Nature of the Environment .......................... 49
3.3 Ecology of Arctic Plants ............................... 51
3.4 Vegetation Zonation .................................... 53
3.5 Arctic Oases ........................................... 55
3.6 Long term Evolution of Canadian Arctic Ecosystems ...... 56
3.7 The Quaternary ......................................... 58
3.8 Postglacial Climate and Vegetation Change in Arctic
Canada ................................................. 59
References .................................................. 61
Discussion Questions ........................................ 64
Some Useful Internet Sources ................................ 65
4 Remote Sensing and Canadian Snow Climatology ................ 66
Richard Kelly
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 66
4.2 The Importance of Snow in the Earth System ............. 66
4.3 Snow Measurements in Canada ............................ 67
4.4 Remote Sensing of Snow ................................. 70
4.5 Snow Variations Inferred from Remote Sensing
Observations ........................................... 77
4.6 Discussion ............................................. 82
4.7 Conclusion ............................................. 82
References .................................................. 83
Discussion Questions ........................................ 86
Some Useful Internet Sources ................................ 86
PART TWO THE CHANGING CRYOSPHERE .............................. 87
5 The Changing Climates ....................................... 89
Roger Barry and Mark Serreze
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 89
5.2 Late Pliocene .......................................... 89
5.3 Quaternary History ..................................... 90
5.4 Postglacial Conditions ................................. 91
5.5 The Last Two Millennia ................................. 92
5.6 Recent Changes ......................................... 94
5.7 The Future ............................................. 96
References ................................................. 101
Discussion Questions ....................................... 103
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 104
6 Snow and Runoff: Processes, Sensitivity and
Vulnerability .............................................. 105
Ming-Ko Woo and John Pomeroy
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 105
6.2 Snow Accumulation ..................................... 107
6.3 Land Cover ............................................ 109
6.4 Snow Ablation ......................................... 111
6.5 Snowmelt Runoff Processes ............................. 113
6.6 Streamflow ............................................ 117
6.7 Snowmelt Floods in Large Basins ....................... 118
6.8 Snow Vulnerability .................................... 122
References ................................................. 123
Discussion Questions ....................................... 125
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 125
7 Permafrost Distribution and Stability ...................... 126
Chris Burn
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 126
7.2 Distribution of Permafrost ............................ 130
7.3 Thermal Regime of Permafrost .......................... 134
7.4 Permafrost and Climate Change ......................... 136
7.5 Conclusions ........................................... 143
References ................................................. 143
Discussion Questions ....................................... 146
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 146
8 Sea Ice in Canada .......................................... 147
David Barber and Jennifer Lukovich
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 147
8.2 What is Sea Ice? ...................................... 147
8.3 The Physical Nature of Sea Ice ........................ 148
8.4 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Sea Ice .......... 150
8.5 Sea Ice and Climate Change ............................ 158
8.6 Implications for Northern Communities, Economic
Development and the Environment ....................... 160
References ................................................. 160
Discussion Questions ....................................... 162
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 162
9 Lake and River Ice in Canada ............................... 163
Terry Prowse
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 163
9.2 Role in the Climate System ............................ 168
9.3 Climatic Controls ..................................... 168
9.4 Historical Trends and Linkages to Climate ............. 169
9.5 Future Ice Regime Projections ......................... 172
9.6 Implications of Ice Regime Changes .................... 173
References ................................................. 179
Discussion Questions ....................................... 181
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 181
PART THREE THE EVER-CHANGING SCENERY ......................... 183
10 Climate Change and the Central Canadian Treeline ........... 185
Glen MacDonald
10.1 Introduction .......................................... 185
10.2 The Central Canadian Treeline Zone Today .............. 186
10.3 Current Warming at the Central Canadian Treeline ...... 188
10.4 Response of the Central Canadian Treeline to
Warming Temperatures .................................. 191
References ................................................. 195
Discussion Questions ....................................... 198
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 199
11 Geomorphic Change in Northern Canada ....................... 200
Hugh French
11.1 Introduction .......................................... 200
11.2 Lessons from the Past ................................. 202
11.3 Freezing, Thawing and Bedrock Instability ............. 205
11.4 Warming Permafrost .................................... 205
11.5 Changes in Azonal Processes ........................... 213
11.6 Geotechnical Implications of Warming Permafrost ....... 216
11.7 Conclusions ........................................... 217
References ................................................. 218
Discussion Questions ....................................... 221
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 221
12 Geomorphic Change in Canada's Temperate Mountains .......... 222
Olav Slaymaker
12.1 Introduction .......................................... 222
12.2 Present Morphology .................................... 223
12.3 Spatial Variability of Ecology and Morphology ......... 224
12.4 Hydroclimate and Cryospheric Phenomena ................ 228
12.5 Rates and Kinds of Geomorphic Processes ............... 234
12.6 Disturbances Regimes and Landscape Transitions ....... 240
12.7 Conclusions ........................................... 242
References ................................................. 243
Discussion Questions ....................................... 246
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 246
13 Risk from Cold-climate Hazards in the Canadian
Cordillera ................................................. 247
Jim Gardner
13.1 Introduction .......................................... 247
13.2 Cold-climate Hazards .................................. 247
13.3 Risk and Climate Variability .......................... 249
13.4 Conclusions ........................................... 264
References ................................................. 264
Discussion Questions ....................................... 266
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 266
14 Societal Aspects of Changing Cold Environments ............. 267
Gita Laidler
14.1 Introduction .......................................... 267
14.2 Cultural Pursuits and Indigenous Rights ............... 268
14.3 Local and Broader Implications of Changing Sea
Ice ................................................... 281
14.4 Northern Governance ................................... 292
14.5 Conclusions ........................................... 294
References ................................................. 295
Discussion Questions ....................................... 300
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 300
15 The Changing Canadian Cryosphere, Globalization and
Global Environmental Change ................................ 301
Olav Slaymaker and Hugh French
15.1 Introduction .......................................... 301
15.2 The Question of Scale ................................. 302
15.3 Adaptive Management ................................... 308
15.4 Globalization ......................................... 310
15.5 Conclusion ............................................ 310
References ................................................. 311
Discussion Questions ....................................... 312
Some Useful Internet Sources ............................... 312
Index ......................................................... 313
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