Preface ...................................................... xiii
Acknowledgments .............................................. xvii
About the Author .............................................. xix
Chapter 1 Working Concepts ..................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 1
1.2 Common Knowledge Axioms .................................... 1
1.3 Wildlife in a Forest ....................................... 3
1.3.1 What Is Wildlife? ................................... 3
1.3.2 Classification ...................................... 4
1.3.3 Life Form ........................................... 5
1.3.4 Life History of Animals ............................. 5
1.4 Environment of Forest Wildlife ............................. 5
1.4.1 The Centrum and Web ................................. 6
1.4.2 What Is Habitat? .................................... 7
1.5 Plants in a Forest ........................................ 10
1.5.1 Life Form .......................................... 10
1.5.2 Life History of Plants ............................. 11
1.6 Water in a Forest ......................................... 11
1.6.1 Water Properties ................................... 12
1.6.2 Freshwater Habitats ................................ 12
1.6.3 Lakes .............................................. 13
1.6.4 Streams ............................................ 14
1.6.5 Seeps and Springs .................................. 14
1.6.6 Riparian Zones ..................................... 15
1.7 Forest Diversity .......................................... 16
1.7.1 Horizontal and Vertical Diversity .................. 17
1.7.2 Layers ............................................. 17
1.7.3 Components ......................................... 18
1.7.4 Arrangement of Components .......................... 20
1.7.5 Biological Diversity ............................... 20
1.7.6 Edge ............................................... 23
1.8 Vegetation ................................................ 24
1.8.1 Classification ..................................... 25
1.8.2 Stands of Trees .................................... 28
1.8.3 Openings in Stands ................................. 28
1.8.4 Dead Trees and Snags ............................... 28
1.8.5 Coarse Woody Debris ................................ 29
1.9 Forests As Ecological Systems ............................. 30
1.9.1 Hierarchical Organization .......................... 30
1.9.2 Structure and Processes ............................ 31
1.9.3 Nutrient Cycles .................................... 32
1.9.4 Energy Flow ........................................ 33
1.9.5 Nutrient and Energy Pathways ....................... 34
1.9.6 Soil ............................................... 35
1.9.7 Time and Space ..................................... 36
1.9.8 Ecological Amplitude ............................... 36
1.9.9 Limiting Factors ................................... 37
1.10 Forest Succession ......................................... 37
1.10.1 Agents of Change ................................... 38
1.10.2 Primary Succession ................................. 38
1.10.3 Secondary Succession ............................... 39
1.10.4 Tree Structural Stages ............................. 39
1.10.5 Old Forest Conditions .............................. 41
1.10.6 Changes over Time .................................. 42
1.11 Healthy Forest Conditions ................................. 44
1.11.1 Long-Term Productivity ............................. 44
1.11.2 Natural Events ..................................... 44
1.11.3 Sustainability ..................................... 45
1.11.4 Climate Change ..................................... 45
1.12 The Menominee Paradigm .................................... 47
1.13 The Pri nciple of Complementarity ......................... 48
Knowledge Enhancement Reading ............................. 49
References ................................................ 49
Chapter 2 Survive and Reproduce ............................... 55
2.1 Introduction .............................................. 55
2.2 Hazards ................................................... 55
2.2.1 Fire ............................................... 55
2.2.2 Roads .............................................. 57
2.2.3 Fences ............................................. 58
2.2.4 Weather ............................................ 58
2.3 Diseases .................................................. 59
2.3.1 Disease-Producing Agents ........................... 59
2.3.2 Pesticides, Herbicides, and Insecticides ........... 61
2.4 Predators ................................................. 61
2.4.1 The Leopold Report ................................. 61
2.4.2 Lotka-Volterra Equations ........................... 62
2.4.3 General Propositions ............................... 63
2.5 Humans .................................................... 64
2.5.1 Habitat Destruction ................................ 64
2.5.2 Illegal Hunting .................................... 65
2.6 Biology ................................................... 66
2.6.1 Reproduction ....................................... 66
2.6.2 Behavior ........................................... 68
2.6.3 Territory .......................................... 68
2.6.4 Ecological Niche ................................... 69
2.6.5 Population Characteristics ......................... 69
2.6.6 Uninhibited Growth Model ........................... 73
2.6.7 Rates of Population Change ......................... 74
2.6.8 Inhibited Growth Model ............................. 78
2.6.9 Carrying Capacity .................................. 81
2.6.10 Life Table ......................................... 82
2.6.11 Fluctuations ....................................... 83
2.6.12 Demographic Vigor .................................. 85
2.7 Resources ................................................. 85
2.7.1 Food ............................................... 86
2.7.2 Cover .............................................. 88
2.7.3 Water .............................................. 89
2.7.4 Space .............................................. 91
2.7.5 Mobility ........................................... 91
2.7.6 Order of Magnitude ................................. 93
Knowledge Enhancement Reading ............................. 95
References ................................................ 95
Chapter 3 Integrating Forestry and Wildlife Management ....... 101
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 101
3.2 Forest Types ............................................. 101
3.2.1 Eastern Forest Types .............................. 103
3.2.1.1 White-red-jack pine (Type 10) ............ 103
3.2.1.2 Spruce-fir (Type 11) ..................... 106
3.2.1.3 Longleaf-slash pine (Type 12) ............ 106
3.2.1.4 Loblolly-shortleaf pine (Type 13) ........ 108
3.2.1.5 Oak-pine (Type 14) ....................... 108
3.2.1.6 Oak-hickory (Type 15) .................... 109
3.2.1.7 Oak-gum-cypress (Type 16) ................ 109
3.2.1.8 Elm-ash-cottonwood (Type 17) ............. 109
3.2.1.9 Maple-beech-birch (Type 18) .............. 110
3.2.1.10 Aspen-birch (Type 19) .................... 110
3.2.2 Western Forest Types .............................. 110
3.2.2.1 Douglas-fir (Type 20) .................... 110
3.2.2.2 Hemlock-Sitka spruce (Type 21) ........... 111
3.2.2.3 Ponderosa pine (Type 22) ................. 111
3.2.2.4 Western white pine (Type 23) ............. 112
3.2.2.5 Lodgepole pine (Type 24) ................. 112
3.2.2.6 Larch (Type 25) .......................... 112
3.2.2.7 Fir-spruce (Type 26) ..................... 112
3.2.2.8 Redwood (Type 27) ........................ 113
3.2.2.9 Pinyon-juniper (Type 28) ................. 113
3.2.2.10 Western hardwoods (Type 29) .............. 114
3.3 Forest Management ........................................ 114
3.3.1 Silvicultural Systems ............................. 115
3.3.2 Tree Species Tolerance ............................ 115
3.3.3 Even- and Uneven-Aged Stands ...................... 116
3.3.4 Clearcutting ...................................... 116
3.3.5 Shelterwood ....................................... 119
3.3.6 Seed Tree ......................................... 120
3.3.7 Selection ......................................... 120
3.3.8 Old Forest Conditions ............................. 120
3.3.9 Thinning .......................................... 121
3.3.10 Spacing of Trees .................................. 121
3.3.11 Forest Regulation ................................. 121
3.3.12 Rotation .......................................... 122
3.3.13 Cutting Cycle ..................................... 123
3.4 Wildlife Management ...................................... 124
3.4.1 Hazards ........................................... 124
3.4.2 Diseases .......................................... 125
3.4.3 Humans ............................................ 127
3.4.4 Predators ......................................... 127
3.4.5 Biology ........................................... 128
3.4.6 Resources ......................................... 134
3.5 Integrating Factors ...................................... 136
3.5.1 A Matter of Scale ................................. 137
3.5.2 Time .............................................. 137
3.5.3 Natural Rotation .................................. 137
3.5.4 Stand Size and Distribution ....................... 138
3.5.5 Log-Normal Distribution ........................... 138
3.5.6 Nonadjacency Constraint ........................... 139
3.5.7 The Landscape Factor .............................. 140
3.5.8 Tradition and Other Considerations ................ 141
3.5.9 Grazing Systems ................................... 143
3.5.10 Conflicts and Competition ......................... 143
3.5.11 National Research Council ......................... 145
3.6 Restore and Maintain Resources and Diversity ............. 146
3.6.1 Wildlife Coordination and Restoration Measures .... 151
3.6.2 Timber Coordination and Restoration Measures ...... 153
3.6.3 Range Coordination and Restoration Measures ....... 155
3.6.4 Engineering Coordination and Restoration
Measures .......................................... 156
3.6.5 Watershed Coordination and Restoration Measures ... 157
3.6.6 Recreation Coordination and Restoration
Measures .......................................... 157
3.6.7 Land Use Coordination and Restoration Measures .... 158
3.6.8 Aquatic Coordination and Restoration Measures ..... 158
Knowledge Enhancement Reading ............................ 159
References ............................................... 160
Chapter 4 Management Strategies .............................. 163
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 163
4.2 Ecosystems ............................................... 163
4.2.1 Local and Formational ............................. 164
4.2.2 Landscapes ........................................ 164
4.2.3 Habitat Area ...................................... 164
4.3 Wildlife Habitat Relationships ........................... 166
4.3.1 Single Species .................................... 168
4.3.2 Multispecies ...................................... 169
4.3.3 Featured Species .................................. 170
4.3.4 Guilds ............................................ 171
4.3.5 Life Form ......................................... 171
4.4 Ecological Factors ....................................... 172
4.4.1 Indicators ........................................ 173
4.4.2 Biological Diversity .............................. 174
4.4.3 Edge .............................................. 174
4.4.4 Habitat Corridors ................................. 176
4.4.5 Gap Analysis ...................................... 177
4.5 Habitat Models ........................................... 177
4.5.1 Factors to Consider ............................... 178
4.5.2 Decision Making ................................... 180
4.5.2.1 Decision Tree ............................ 181
4.5.2.2 Expert Systems ........................... 181
4.5.3 Pattern Recognition ............................... 183
4.5.4 Habitat Indices ................................... 185
4.5.5 Stand Structure Model ............................. 186
4.5.6 Wildlife Data Models .............................. 186
4.6 Habitat Evaluation and Monitoring ........................ 188
4.6.1 Ecosystem Functioning ............................. 188
4.6.2 Habitat Quality and Populations ................... 189
4.6.3 Habitat Suitability Index ......................... 189
4.6.4 Condition and Trend ............................... 190
4.6.5 Monitoring Habitat Change ......................... 194
4.7 Integrated Management .................................... 194
4.7.1 Adaptive Management ............................... 195
4.8 Planning ................................................. 196
4.8.1 Laws and Policy ................................... 197
4.8.2 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act ................ 197
4.8.3 Multiple-Use, Sustained-Yield Act ................. 198
4.8.4 Sikes Act ......................................... 198
4.8.5 National Environmental Policy Act ................. 198
4.8.6 Endangered Species Act ............................ 198
4.8.7 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act (RPA) ................................ 199
4.8.8 National Forest Management Act (NFMA) ............. 199
4.8.9 Governing Policies ................................ 199
4.8.10 Why Plan? ......................................... 201
4.8.11 Factors to Consider ............................... 201
4.8.12 Operational Plans ................................. 202
4.8.13 Checklist for Background Information .............. 203
4.8.14 Decision Support Systems .......................... 203
4.8.15 Project Implementation ............................ 204
4.9 Inventory ................................................ 205
4.9.1 Multiresource Inventory ........................... 205
4.9.2 Categories of Inventory ........................... 206
4.9.3 Intensity of Inventory ............................ 207
4.9.4 Map Scale ......................................... 208
4.9.5 Geographic Information Systems .................... 209
4.10 Sampling ................................................. 209
4.10.1 Types of Sampling ................................. 210
4.10.2 Shape and Size of Sample Units .................... 211
4.10.3 Sampling Design ................................... 212
4.10.4 Information to be Collected ....................... 213
4.10.5 Uses of Habitat Data .............................. 214
4.10.6 Estimating Animal Numbers ......................... 215
4.10.7 Counting Animals (Direct) ......................... 215
4.10.8 Counting Signs (Indirect) ......................... 216
4.10.9 Tree Measurements ................................. 218
Knowledge Enhancement Reading ............................ 220
References ............................................... 220
Chapter 5 Forest Attributes and Wildlife Needs (FAAWN) ....... 225
5.1 Background Information ................................... 225
5.2 Relational Database Systems .............................. 228
5.2.1 Structure and Organization ........................ 228
5.2.2 Quality Control ................................... 228
5.2.3 Relation Theory ................................... 228
5.2.4 Relationship Systems .............................. 229
5.2.5 Design Criteria ................................... 230
5.2.6 How Relational Systems Work ....................... 231
5.2.7 Rules for Placing the Links ....................... 231
5.2.8 Determining the Links ............................. 232
5.2.9 Evaluate and Test the Design ...................... 232
5.3 Developing a Relational Data Model ....................... 233
5.3.1 Animals ........................................... 243
5.3.2 Food .............................................. 245
5.3.3 Life-Needs ........................................ 245
5.3.4 States ............................................ 246
5.3.5 Hypothesized ...................................... 247
5.3.6 Regions ........................................... 247
5.3.7 Types-States ...................................... 248
5.3.8 Types-Codes ....................................... 248
5.3.9 Plants-Types ...................................... 248
5.3.10 Plants ............................................ 248
5.3.11 National .......................................... 248
5.4 A Way of Learning ........................................ 248
5.4.1 Using the Data Model .............................. 248
5.4.2 Examples of Output ................................ 249
5.4.3 Suggested Additions ............................... 249
5.4.4 Entering and Editing Data ......................... 250
5.5 Using the Computer Disk .................................. 250
Knowledge Enrichment Reading ............................. 251
References for Validating Information .................... 251
References ............................................... 253
Appendix: Conversion Factors ............................. 255
Index ......................................................... 257
|
