1 Geo-information Technology - What It Is, How It Was
and Where It Is Heading to ................................... 1
1.1 Land Surveying .......................................... 1
1.1.1 Famous Land Surveyors ............................ 1
1.1.2 What, Where, When ................................ 2
1.1.3 Triangulation .................................... 5
1.1.4 Electronic Distance Measurement .................. 8
1.2 Technological and Societal Developments ................ 11
1.3 Geomatics .............................................. 12
1.4 Geodesy ................................................ 13
1.4.1 Definition and Focus ............................ 13
1.4.2 Geodetic Coordinates ............................ 15
1.4.3 Height Reference System ......................... 15
1.4.4 Coordinate Awareness ............................ 18
1.5 Changing Needs ......................................... 19
1.6 Concluding Remarks ..................................... 20
References ............................................. 21
2 Earth Viewers ............................................... 23
2.1 Map-Based Searching .................................... 24
2.2 Used by the Millions ................................... 25
2.3 Characteristics ........................................ 25
2.4 Used by Professionals .................................. 26
2.5 Communication Tool with Citizens ....................... 29
2.6 Getting Geographically Aware ........................... 30
2.7 Bing Maps: Microsoft's Virtual Earth Viewer ............ 31
2.8 Concluding Remarks ..................................... 32
References .................................................. 33
3 Understanding Earth-Related Phenomena Through Maps .......... 35
3.1 Tabulating Versus Mapping .............................. 36
3.2 Medical Mapping ........................................ 36
3.3 Geological Mapping ..................................... 40
3.4 From Paper to Bytes .................................... 42
3.4.1 GIS ............................................. 43
3.4.2 Essential Data .................................. 45
3.4.3 Analysis ........................................ 45
3.5 Web-Based GIS .......................................... 46
3.5.1 Architecture and Applications ................... 47
3.5.2 Web 2.0 ......................................... 47
3.5.3 Volunteered Geography ........................... 48
3.5.4 Geosensor Web ................................... 49
3.6 Summary and Further Reading ............................ 50
References .................................................. 51
4 Global Navigation Satellite Systems and Inertial
Navigation .................................................. 55
4.1 Overview ............................................... 56
4.2 Basics ................................................. 58
4.3 Achieving High Accuracy ................................ 60
4.4 Selective Availability ................................. 62
4.5 GPS Modernisation ...................................... 64
4.6 Multipath .............................................. 64
4.7 GNSS Infrastructure .................................... 66
4.8 Improving Accuracy ..................................... 69
4.9 Geodetic Precision ..................................... 72
4.10 Atomic Clocks .......................................... 73
4.11 Monitoring Space Segment ............................... 73
4.12 GLONASS ................................................ 74
4.13 Galileo ................................................ 75
4.14 Beidou ................................................. 77
4.15 Co-operation Among System Providers .................... 79
4.16 Inertial Navigation .................................... 79
4.17 Trends ................................................. 81
References .................................................. 82
5 Mobile GIS and Location-Based Services ...................... 85
5.1 Background ............................................. 85
5.2 Mobile GIS ............................................. 87
5.2.1 Three Domains ................................... 89
5.2.2 Wireless ........................................ 90
5.2.3 Accuracy ........................................ 90
5.2.4 Operational Features ............................ 91
5.2.5 Peripherals ..................................... 92
5.2.6 Data Quality and Performance .................... 92
5.2.7 Professional Applications ....................... 93
5.2.8 Scientific Applications ......................... 95
5.3 Location-Based Services ................................ 96
References .................................................. 99
6 Terrestrial Laser Scanning ................................. 101
6.1 Basics of Laser ....................................... 103
6.2 Measurement Principles ................................ 104
6.2.1 Time-of-Flight Versus Phase-Shift .............. 105
6.2.2 Range .......................................... 106
6.2.3 TLS as a Surveying Instrument .................. 106
6.3 Processing Software ................................... 108
6.4 Comparison with Total Stations ........................ 108
6.4.1 Measurement Principles and Precision ........... 108
6.4.2 Blind Sampling ................................. 109
6.4.3 Time-Efficiency ................................ 109
6.5 Comparison with Terrestrial Photogrammetry ............ 110
6.6 Integration with Digital Cameras ...................... 1ll
6.7 Scene Monitoring ...................................... 112
6.7.1 Intervening Objects ............................ 112
6.7.2 Placing Markers ................................ 114
6.8 Applications .......................................... 115
6.8.1 3D City Modelling .............................. 115
6.8.2 Traffic Accidents and Road Safety .............. 115
6.8.3 Deformation and Heritage ....................... 116
6.8.4 Other Applications ............................. 116
6.9 Mobile Mapping ........................................ 117
References ................................................. 120
7 Photogrammetry: Geometric Data from Imagery ................ 123
7.1 From Analogue to Digital .............................. 123
7.2 Basics ................................................ 128
7.3 Stereoscopic Viewing .................................. 132
7.4 Aerotriangulation ..................................... 134
7.5 Image-Matching Techniques ............................. 134
7.6 Scale and Orthoimages ................................. 137
7.7 Digital Photogrammetric Workstations .................. 139
7.8 Digital Aerial Cameras ................................ 141
7.9 Oblique Aerial Imagery ................................ 142
7.10 Aerial Photogrammetry in Practice ..................... 146
7.11 UAV Photogrammetry .................................... 148
References ................................................. 149
8 Airborne Lidar ............................................. 153
8.1 Overview .............................................. 155
8.2 Basics ................................................ 156
8.3 Pulse Characteristics ................................. 157
8.4 Multiple Pulses in Air ................................ 161
8.5 Data Handling ......................................... 162
8.5.1 Interpolation .................................. 162
8.5.2 Ground Filtering ............................... 164
8.5.3 Manual Editing ................................. 165
8.5.4 Deriving Parameters ............................ 166
8.6 Manufacturers ......................................... 166
8.7 Applications .......................................... 167
8.8 Concluding Remarks .................................... 168
References ................................................. 168
9 Earth Observation from Space ............................... 171
9.1 Remote Sensing ........................................ 171
9.2 Earth Observation Systems ............................. 172
9.2.1 Overview of Systems ............................ 172
9.2.2 GeoEye-1 and Ikonos ............................ 174
9.2.3 WorldView-1 and 2 .............................. 176
9.2.4 Cartosat ....................................... 177
9.2.5 Daichi ......................................... 177
9.2.6 EROS ........................................... 178
9.2.7 Radar Satellites ............................... 178
9.3 Processing of Satellite Images ........................ 182
9.3.1 Image Enhancement .............................. 182
9.3.2 Pan-sharpening ................................. 182
9.3.3 Radiometric Rectification ...................... 183
9.3.4 Geometric Rectification ........................ 184
9.4 Stereo Images ......................................... 185
9.5 Information Extraction ................................ 185
9.6 Change Detection ...................................... 190
9.7 Applications .......................................... 191
9.8 Commercialisation ..................................... 194
References ................................................. 194
10 Modelling and Exchanging Geo-information ................... 197
10.1 Unified Modelling Language ............................ 197
10.2 Open Source Software .................................. 203
10.3 Exchanging Geo-data over the Web ...................... 206
10.3.1 GML ............................................ 207
10.3.2 KML ............................................ 208
10.3.3 GDF ............................................ 208
10.3.4 AJAX ........................................... 208
References ................................................. 209
11 Quality of Geo-information ................................. 211
11.1 Basics ................................................ 211
11.2 Surveyor's Perspective ................................ 212
11.3 Random, Systematic and Blunder ........................ 213
11.4 Error Propagation ..................................... 214
11.5 Least Squares Adjustment .............................. 215
11.6 GIS User's Perspective ................................ 217
11.6.1 Positional Accuracy ............................ 217
11.6.2 Temporal Accuracy .............................. 218
11.6.3 Thematic Accuracy .............................. 218
11.6.4 Completeness ................................... 218
11.6.5 Consistency .................................... 218
11.6.6 Resolution ..................................... 219
11.7 Quality Assessment .................................... 221
11.7.1 Nominal Scale Data ............................. 221
11.7.2 Interval Scale Data ............................ 222
11.8 Quality Control ....................................... 224
11.9 Concluding Remarks .................................... 226
References ................................................. 226
12 Applying Geo-information Technology ........................ 229
12.1 Management of the Environment ......................... 229
12.1.1 Alternative Planning Scenarios ................. 230
12.1.2 Monitoring ..................................... 230
12.1.3 Changing Habits ................................ 231
12.1.4 Crisp Boundaries ............................... 232
12.2 Urban Planning ........................................ 233
12.2.1 Eskisehir ...................................... 234
12.2.2 Heritage Site Under Threat ..................... 236
12.2.3 Lungs of the City .............................. 237
12.3 Recreating the Past ................................... 238
12.4 3D City Models ........................................ 243
12.4.1 Level of Detail ................................ 243
12.4.2 Manual Editing ................................. 245
12.4.3 Examples ....................................... 246
12.4.4 Use of 3D City Models .......................... 247
12.5 Weed Control from Space ............................... 249
12.6 Biodiversity Monitoring ............................... 250
12.6.1 Nature Conservation in Nepal ................... 250
12.6.2 Mangrove Monitoring in Bengal .................. 251
12.6.3 Monitoring Fish Habitat in Washington State,
USA ............................................ 252
12.6.4 Wetland Conservation ........................... 252
12.7 Access to Geo-data for Citizens and Tourists .......... 254
12.8 Forest Biomass Mapping ................................ 255
12.9 Renewable Energy ...................................... 256
References ................................................. 257
13 Census Taking .............................................. 259
13.1 Methods ............................................... 260
13.1.1 Virtual Census ................................. 261
13.1.2 De Facto Method ................................ 261
13.2 Enumeration Area Demarcation .......................... 263
13.3 Satellite Images ...................................... 265
13.4 How Many Are We? ...................................... 268
13.5 Lessons Learned ....................................... 269
13.6 Population Estimation ................................. 270
13.6.1 Counting Houses ................................ 271
13.6.2 Land Use Zoning ................................ 271
13.6.3 Multispectral Classification ................... 272
References ................................................. 272
14 Risk and Disaster Management ............................... 275
14.1 Natural and Man-Made Disasters ........................ 276
14.2 Phases of Disaster Management ......................... 276
14.2.1 Recording ...................................... 277
14.2.2 Risk Reduction ................................. 277
14.2.3 Readiness ...................................... 278
14.2.4 Response ....................................... 279
14.2.5 Recovery ....................................... 280
14.3 Tsunami Early-Warning System .......................... 280
14.4 Petrol Station Vicinity Vulnerability Assessment ...... 282
14.5 Fire Fighting ......................................... 284
14.6 Flooding .............................................. 284
14.7 Earthquake Monitoring ................................. 286
14.8 Disaster Management from Space ........................ 287
14.8.1 Sichuan May 2008 Earthquake .................... 288
14.8.2 Haiti Earthquake ............................... 290
14.8.3 Conflicting Resolutions ........................ 291
14.8.4 Worldwide Collaboration ........................ 292
14.9 Base-Map .............................................. 293
14.10 Concluding Remarks ................................... 294
References ................................................. 294
15 Land Administration ........................................ 297
15.1 Land: The Most Valuable Resource ...................... 298
15.2 Human's Relationship to Land .......................... 298
15.3 Value and Use ......................................... 299
15.4 Recognition of Rights ................................. 300
15.5 Fundamental Right ..................................... 301
15.6 Evidences of Right .................................... 302
15.7 Security of Land Rights ............................... 302
15.7.1 Why Security? .................................. 302
15.7.2 Transfer of Land Rights ........................ 303
15.7.3 Private Conveyance ............................. 305
15.7.4 Deeds Registration ............................. 305
15.7.5 Title Registration ............................. 306
15.8 Land Administration ................................... 307
15.9 Land Registration and Cadastres ....................... 308
15.10 Land Management ...................................... 310
15.11 Adjudication ......................................... 311
15.11.1 Sporadic and Systematic Adjudication .......... 312
15.11.2 Mixed Strategy ................................ 312
15.11.3 Participatory GIS ............................. 313
15.12 The Parcel ........................................... 314
15.13 Boundary Description ................................. 315
15.14 Fixed and General Boundaries ......................... 316
15.15 Geometric Boundary Surveys ........................... 318
15.16 Data Capturing Techniques ............................ 319
15.17 Land Policy .......................................... 322
15.18 3D Cadastres ......................................... 323
15.19 Core Cadastral Domain Model .......................... 325
15.20 Land Administration and the Battle Against Poverty ... 327
15.20.1 Millennium Development Goals .................. 327
15.20.2 Lack of Data .................................. 329
15.20.3 Economic Apartheid ............................ 330
15.20.4 Land as Collateral ............................ 331
15.20.5 'Aid Should Continue' ......................... 332
15.21 Future .......................................... 334
References ................................................. 337
Name Index .................................................... 339
Subject Index ................................................. 341
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