Preface to the second edition ......................... page xii
Preface to the first edition ............................... xvi
Introduction ................................................ xx
1 Interactions of particles and radiation with matter .......... 1
1.1 Interactions of charged particles ...................... 2
1.1.1 Energy loss by ionisation and excitation ........ 3
1.1.2 Channelling .................................... 12
1.1.3 Ionisation yield ............................... 13
1.1.4 Multiple scattering ............................ 18
1.1.5 Bremsstrahlung ................................. 19
1.1.6 Direct electron-pair production ................ 22
1.1.7 Energy loss by photonuclear interactions ....... 24
1.1.8 Total energy loss .............................. 24
1.1.9 Energy-range relations for charged particles ... 20
1.1.10 Synchrotron-radiation losses ................... 28
1.2 Interactions of photons ............................... 31
1.2.1 Photoelectric effect ........................... 32
1.2.2 Compton effect ................................. 33
1.2.3 Pair production ................................ 30
1.2.4 Total photon absorption cross section .......... 38
1.3 Strong interactions of hadrons ........................ 41
1.4 Drift and diffusion in gases .......................... 43
1.5 Problems .............................................. 49
References .................................................. 51
2 Characteristic properties of detectors ....................... 56
2.1 Resolutions and basic statistics ...................... 56
2.2 Characteristic times .................................. 62
2.3 Dead-time corrections ................................. 63
2.4 Random coincidences ................................... 63
2.5 Efficiencies .......................................... 65
2.6 Problems .............................................. 69
References .................................................. 69
3 Units of radiation measurements and radiation sources ....... 71
3.1 Units of radial ion measurement ....................... 71
3.2 Radiation sources ..................................... 76
3.3 Problems .............................................. 79
References .................................................. 81
4 Accelerators ................................................ 82
1.1 Problems .............................................. 87
References .................................................. 88
5 Main physical phenomena used for particle detection and
basic counter types ......................................... 90
5.1 Ionisation counters ................................... 90
5.1.1 Ionisation counters without amplification ....... 90
5.1.2 Proportional counters ........................... 97
5.1.3 Geiger counters ................................ 104
5.1.4 Streamer tubes ................................. 106
5.2 Ionisation detectors with liquids .................... 110
5.3 Solid-state ionisation counters ...................... 112
5.4 Scintillation counters ............................... 122
5.5 Photoniultipliers and photodiodes .................... 130
5.6 Chercnkov counters ................................... 142
5.7 Transition-radiation detectors (TRD) ................. 140
5.8 Problems ............................................. 150
References ................................................. 151
6 Historical track detectors ................................. 160
6.l Cloud chambers ....................................... 160
6.2 Bubble chambers ...................................... 163
6.3 Streamer chambers .................................... 167
6.4 Neou-Hash-tube chamber ............................... 169
6.5 Spark chambers ....................................... 170
6.6 Nuclear emulsions .................................... 173
6.7 Silver-halide crystals ............................... 175
6.8 X-ray films .......................................... 170
6.9 Thermoluminescence detectors ......................... 177
6.10 Radiophotoluminesconce detectors ..................... 178
6.11 Plastic detectors .................................... 179
6.12 Problems ............................................. 180
References ................................................. 181
7 Track detectors ............................................ 186
7.1 Multiwire proportional chambers ...................... 186
7.2 Planar drift chambers ................................ 191
7.3 Cylindrical wire chambers ............................ 197
7.3.1 Cylindrical proportional and drift chambers .... 198
7.3.2 Jet drift chambers ............................. 205
7.3.3 Time-projection chambers (TPCs) ................ 208
7.4 Micropattern gaseous detectors ....................... 212
7.5 Semiconductor track detectors ........................ 215
7.6 Scintillating fibre trackers ......................... 219
7.7 Problems ............................................. 222
References ................................................. 223
8 Calorimetry ................................................ 230
8.1 Electromagnetic calorimeters ......................... 231
8.1.1 Electron--photon cascades ..................... 231
8.1.2 Homogeneous calorimeters ...................... 238
8.1.3 Sampling calorimeters ......................... 244
8.2 Hadron calorimeters .................................. 249
8.3 Calibration and monitoring of calorimeters ........... 258
8.4 Cryogenic calorimeters ............................... 201
8.5 Problems ............................................. 207
References ................................................. 207
9 Particle identification .................................... 273
9.1 Charged-particle identification ...................... 274
9.1.1 Time-of-Hight counters ......................... 274
9.1.2 Identification by ionisation losses ............ 278
9.1.3 Identification using Cheronkov radiation ....... 281
9.1.4 Transition-radiation detectors ................. 289
9.2 Particle identification with calorimeters ............ 292
9.3 Neutron detection .................................... 290
9.4 Problems ............................................. 301
References ................................................. 302
10 Neutrino detectors ......................................... 307
10.1 Neutrino sources ..................................... 307
10.2 Neutrino reactions ................................... 309
10.3 Some historical remarks on neutrino detection ........ 310
10.4 Neutrino detectors ................................... 311
10.5 Problems ............................................. 323
References ................................................. 324
11 Momentum measurement and muon detection .................... 327
11.1 Magnetic spectrometers for fixed-target
experiments .......................................... 328
11.2 Magnetic spectrometers for special applications ...... 336
11.3 Problems ............................................. 342
References ................................................. 344
12 Ageing and radiation effects ............................... 346
12.1 Ageing effects in gaseous detectors .................. 346
12.2 Radiation hardness of scintillators .................. 352
12.3 Radiation hardness of Cherenkov counters ............. 354
12.4 Radiation hardness of silicon detectors .............. 355
12.5 Problems ............................................. 357
References ................................................. 358
13 Example of a general-purpose detector: Belle ............... 360
13.1 Detector components .................................. 361
13.1.1 The silicon vertex detector (SVD) ............. 362
13.1.2 The central drift chamber (CDC) ............... 364
13.1.3 The aerogel Cherenkov-counter system (ACC) .... 367
13.1.4 Time-of-flight counters (TOF) ................. 369
13.1.5 Electromagnetic calorimetry (ECL) ............. 372
13.1.6 The KL and muon detection system (KLM) ........ 377
13.2 Particle identification .............................. 379
13.3 Data-acquisition electronics and trigger system ...... 382
13.4 Luminosity measurement and the detector
performance .......................................... 385
13.5 Problems ............................................. 387
References ................................................. 388
14 Electronics ................................................ 390
14.1 Introduction ......................................... 390
14.2 Example systems ...................................... 391
14.3 Detection limits ..................................... 395
14.4 Acquiring the sensor signal .......................... 397
14.4.1 Signal integration ............................ 397
14.5 Signal processing .................................... 402
14.6 Electronic noise ..................................... 403
14.6.1 Thermal (Johnson) noise ....................... 404
14.6.2 Shot noise .................................... 405
14.7 Signal-to-noise ratio versus sensor capacitance ...... 405
14.8 Pulse shaping ........................................ 406
14.9 Noise analysis of a detector and front-end
amplifier ............................................ 409
14.10 Timing measurements .................................. 415
14.11 Digital electronics .................................. 417
14.11.1 Logic elements ............................... 417
14.11.2 Propagation delays and power dissipation ..... 419
14.11.3 Logic arrays ................................. 421
14.12 Analogue-to-digital conversion ....................... 421
14.13 Time-to-digital converters (TDCs) .................... 425
14.14 Signal transmission .................................. 427
14.15 Interference and pickup .............................. 429
14.15.1 Pickup mechanisms ............................ 429
14.15.2 Remedial techniques .......................... 431
14.16 Conclusion ........................................... 433
14.17 Problems ............................................. 433
References ................................................. 435
15 Data analysis .............................................. 436
15.1 Introduction ......................................... 436
15.2 Reconstruction of raw detector data .................. 436
15.3 Analysis challenges .................................. 439
15.4 Analysis building blocks ............................. 441
15.4.1 Charged-particle trajectories ................. 442
15.4.2 Energy reconstruction ......................... 446
15.4.3 Quark jets .................................... 447
15.4.4 Stable-particle identification ................ 449
15.4.5 Displaced vertices and unstable-particle
reconstruction ................................ 449
15.5 Analysis components .................................. 452
15.5.1 Monte Carlo event generators .................. 452
15.5.2 Simulation of detector response ............... 453
15.5.3 Beyond the detector ........................... 453
15.5.4 Multivariate techniques ....................... 455
15.6 Analysis in action ................................... 459
15.7 Problems ............................................. 462
References ................................................. 462
16 Applications of particle detectors outside particle
physics .................................................... 466
16.1 Radiation camera ..................................... 467
16.2 Imaging of blood vessels ............................. 471
16.3 Tumour therapy with particle beams ................... 475
16.4 Surface investigations with slow protons ............. 480
16.5 Gamma- and neutron-backseat ter measurements ......... 482
16.6 Tribology ............................................ 484
16.7 Identification of isotopes in radioactive fallout .... 486
16.8 Search for hidden chambers in pyramids ............... 487
16.9 Random-number generators using radioactive decays .... 489
16.10 Experimental proof of ve ≠ vμ ........................ 492
16.11 Detector telescope for γ-ray astronomy ............... 495
16.12 Measurement of extensive air showers with the Fly's
Eye detector ......................................... 497
16.13 Search for proton decay with water Cherenkov
counters ............................................. 500
16.14 Radio-carbon dating .................................. 501
16.15 Accident dosimetry ................................... 503
16.16 Problems ............................................. 503
References ................................................. 505
Résumé ..................................................... 510
17 Glossary ................................................... 512
18 Solutions .................................................. 533
Appendix 1: Table of fundamental physical constants ........ 577
Appendix 2: Definition and conversion of physical units .... 580
Appendix 3: Properties of pure and composite materials ..... 582
Appendix 4: Monte Carlo event generators ................... 584
Appendix 5: Decay-level schemes ............................ 591
Index ...................................................... 599
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