PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................... 1
1.1 Medical Imaging: A Collaborative Paradigm .................. 2
1.2 Medical Imaging Modalities ................................. 3
1.3 Medical Imaging: from Physiology to Information
Processing ................................................. 6
1.3.1 Understanding Physiology and Imaging Medium ......... 6
1.3.2 Physics of Imaging .................................. 7
1.3.3 Imaging Instrumentation ............................. 7
1.3.4 Data Acquisition and Image Reconstruction ........... 7
1.3.5 Image Analysis and Applications ..................... 8
1.4 General Performance Measures ............................... 8
1.4.1 An Example of Performance Measure .................. 10
1.5 Biomedical Image Processing and Analysis .................. 11
1.6 Matlab Image Processing Toolbox ........................... 14
1.6.1 Digital Image Representation ....................... 14
1.6.2 Basic MATLAB Image Toolbox Commands ................ 16
1.7 Imagepro Interface in Matlab Environment and Image
Databases ................................................. 19
1.7.1 Imagepro Image Processing Interface ................ 19
1.7.2 Installation Instructions .......................... 20
1.8 Imagej and Other Image Processing Software Packages ....... 20
1.9 Exercises ................................................. 21
1.10 References ................................................ 22
1.11 Definitions ............................................... 22
CHAPTER 2 IMAGE FORMATION ..................................... 23
2.1 Image Coordinate System ................................... 24
2.1.1 2-D Image Rotation ................................. 25
2.1.2 3-D Image Rotation and Translation
Transformation ..................................... 26
2.2 Linear Systems ............................................ 27
2.3 Point Source and Impulse Functions ........................ 27
2.4 Probability and Random Variable Functions ................. 29
2.4.1 Conditional and Joint Probability Density
Functions .......................................... 30
2.4.2 Independent and Orthogonal Random Variables ........ 31
2.5 Image Formation ........................................... 32
2.5.1 PSF and Spatial Resolution ......................... 35
2.5.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio .............................. 37
2.5.3 Contrast-to-Noise Ratio ............................ 39
2.5.1 Pin-hole Imaging ................................... 39
2.7 Fourier Transform ......................................... 40
2.7.1 Sine Function ...................................... 43
2.8 Radon Transform ........................................... 44
2.9 Sampling .................................................. 46
2.10 Discrete Fourier Transform ................................ 50
2.11 Wavelet Transform ......................................... 52
2.12 Exercises ................................................. 60
2.13 References ................................................ 62
CHAPTER 3 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH
MATTER IN MEDICAL IMAGING ........................... 65
3.1 Electromagnetic Radiation ................................. 65
3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation for Image Formation ............. 66
3.3 Radiation Interaction with Matter ......................... 67
3.3.1 Coherent or Rayleigh Scattering .................... 67
3.3.2 Photoelectric Absorption ........................... 68
3.3.3 Compton Scattering ................................. 69
3.3.4 Pair Production .................................... 69
3.4 Linear Attenuation Coefficient ............................ 70
3.5 Radiation Detection ....................................... 70
3.5.1 Ionized Chambers and Proportional Counters ......... 70
3.5.2 Semiconductor Detectors ............................ 72
3.5.3 Advantages of Semiconductor Detectors .............. 73
3.5.4 Scintillation Detectors ............................ 73
3.6 Detector Subsystem Output Voltage Pulse ................... 76
3.7 Exercises ................................................. 78
3.8 References ................................................ 78
CHAPTER 4 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: X-RAY IMAGING ........... 79
4.1 X-Ray Imaging ............................................. 80
4.2 X-Ray Generation .......................................... 81
4.3 X-Ray 2-D Projection Imaging .............................. 84
4.4 X-Ray Mammography ......................................... 86
4.5 X-Ray CT .................................................. 88
4.6 Spiral X-Ray CT ........................................... 92
4.7 Contrast Agent, Spatial Resolution, and SNR ............... 95
4.8 Exercises ................................................. 96
4.9 References ................................................ 97
CHAPTER 5 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: MAGNETIC RESONANCE
IMAGING ............................................. 99
5.1 MRI Principles ........................................... 100
5.2 MR Instrumentation ....................................... 110
5.3 MRI Pulse Sequences ...................................... 112
5.3.1 Spin-Echo Imaging ................................. 114
5.3.2 Inversion Recovery Imaging ........................ 118
5.3.3 Echo Planar Imaging ............................... 119
5.3.4 Gradient Echo Imaging ............................. 123
5.4 Flow Imaging ............................................. 125
5.5 fMRI ..................................................... 129
5.6 Diffusion Imaging ........................................ 130
5.7 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR .................... 135
5.8 Exercises ................................................ 137
5.9 References ............................................... 138
CHAPTER 6 NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING MODALITIES ................ 139
6.1 Radioactivity ............................................ 139
6.2 SPECT .................................................... 140
6.2.1 Detectors and Data Acquisition System ............. 142
6.2.2 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and Signal-to-
Noise Ratio in SPECT Imaging ...................... 145
6.3 PET ...................................................... 148
6.3.1 Detectors and Data Acquisition Systems ............ 150
6.3.2 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR in PET
Imaging ........................................... 150
6.4 Dual-Modality Spect-CT and PET-CT Scanners ............... 151
6.5 Exercises ................................................ 154
6.6 References ............................................... 155
CHAPTER 7 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: ULTRASOUND IMAGING ..... 157
7.1 Propagation of Sound in a Medium ......................... 157
7.2 Reflection and Refraction ................................ 159
7.3 Transmission of Ultrasound Waves in a Multilayered
Medium ................................................... 160
7.4 Attenuation .............................................. 162
7.5 Ultrasound Reflection Imaging ............................ 163
7.6 Ultrasound Imaging Instrumentation ....................... 164
7.7 Imaging with Ultrasound: A-Mode .......................... 166
7.8 Imaging with Ultrasound: M-Mode .......................... 167
7.9 Imaging with Ultrasound: B-Mode .......................... 168
7.10 Doppler Ultrasound Imaging ............................... 169
7.11 Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR .................... 170
7.12 Exercises ................................................ 171
7.13 References ............................................... 172
CHAPTER 8 IMA GE RECONSTRUCTION .............................. 173
8.1 Radon Transform and Image Reconstruction ................. 174
8.1.1 The Central Slice Theorem ......................... 174
8.1.2 Inverse Radon Transform ........................... 176
8.1.3 Backprojection Method ............................. 176
8.2 Iterative Algebraic Reconstruction Methods ............... 180
8.3 Estimation Methods ....................................... 182
8.4 Fourier Reconstruction Methods ........................... 185
8.5 Image Reconstruction in Medical Imaging Modalities ....... 186
8.5.1 Image Reconstruction in X-Ray CT .................. 186
8.5.2 Image Reconstruction in Nuclear Emission
Computed Tomography: SPECT and PET ................ 188
8.5.2.1 A General Approach to ML-EM Algorithms ... 189
8.5.2.2 A Multigrid EM Algorithm ................. 190
8.5.3 Image Reconstruction in Magnetic Resonance
Imaging ........................................... 192
8.5.4 Image Reconstruction in Ultrasound Imaging ........ 193
8.6 Exercises ................................................ 194
8.7 References ............................................... 195
CHAPTER 9 IMAGE PROCESSING AND ENHANCEMENT ................... 199
9.1 Spatial Domain Methods ................................... 200
9.1.1 Histogram Transformation and Equalization ......... 201
9.1.2 Histogram Modification ............................ 203
9.1.3 Image Averaging ................................... 204
9.1.4 Image Subtraction ................................. 204
9.1.5 Neighborhood Operations ........................... 205
9.1.5.1 Median Filter ............................ 207
9.1.5.2 Adaptive Arithmetic Mean Filter .......... 207
9.1.5.3 Image Sharpening and Edge Enhancement .... 208
9.1.5.4 Feature Enhancement Using Adaptive
Neighborhood Processing .................. 209
9.2 Frequency Domain Filtering ............................... 212
9.2.1 Wiener Filtering .................................. 213
9.2.2 Constrained Least Square Filtering ................ 214
9.2.3 Low-Pass Filtering ................................ 215
9.2.4 High-Pass Filtering ............................... 217
9.2.5 Homomorphic Filtering ............................. 217
9.3 Wavelet Transform for Image Processing ................... 220
9.3.1 Image Smoothing and Enhancement Using Wavelet
Transform ......................................... 223
9.4 Exercises ................................................ 226
9.5 References ............................................... 228
CHAPTER 10 IMAGE SEGMENTATION ................................. 229
10.1 Edge-Based Image Segmentation ............................ 229
10.1.1 Edge Detection Operations ......................... 230
10.1.2 Boundary Tracking ................................. 231
10.1.3 Hough Transform ................................... 233
10.2 Pixel-Based Direct Classification Methods ................ 235
10.2.1 Optimal Global Thresholding ....................... 237
10.2.2 Pixel Classification Through Clustering ........... 239
10.2.2.1 Data Clustering .......................... 239
10.2.2.2 k-Means Clustering ....................... 241
10.2.2.3 Fuzzy c-Means Clustering ................. 242
10.2.2.4 An Adaptive FCM Algorithm ................ 244
10.3 Region-Based Segmentation ................................ 245
10.3.1 Region-Growing .................................... 245
10.3.2 Region-Splitting .................................. 247
10.4 Advanced Segmentation Methods ............................ 248
10.4.1 Estimation-Model Based Adaptive Segmentation ...... 249
10.4.2 Image Segmentation Using Neural Networks .......... 254
10.4.2.1 Backpropagation Neural Network for
Classification ........................... 255
10.4.2.2 The RBF Network .......................... 258
10.4.2.3 Segmentation of Arterial Structure in
Digital Subtraction Angiograms ........... 259
10.5 Exercises ................................................ 261
10.6 References ............................................... 262
CHAPTER 11 IMAGE REPRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND
CLASSIFICATION ..................................... 265
11.1 Feature Extraction and Representation .................... 268
11.1.1 Statistical Pixel-Level Features .................. 268
11.1.2 Shape Features .................................... 270
11.1.2.1 Boundary Encoding: Chain Code ............ 271
11.1.2.2 Boundary Encoding: Fourier Descriptor .... 273
11.1.2.3 Moments for Shape Description ............ 273
11.1.2.4 Morphological Processing for Shape
Description .............................. 274
11.1.3 Texture Features .................................. 280
11.1.4 Relational Features ............................... 282
11.2 Feature Selection for Classification ..................... 283
11.2.1 Linear Discriminant Analysis ...................... 285
11.2.2 PCA ............................................... 288
11.2.3 GA-Based Optimization ............................. 289
11.3 Feature and Image Classification ......................... 292
11.3.1 Statistical Classification Methods ................ 292
11.3.1.1 Nearest Neighbor Classifier .............. 293
11.3.1.2 Bayesian Classifier ...................... 293
11.3.2 Rule-Based Systems ................................ 294
11.3.3 Neural Network Classifiers ........................ 296
11.3.3.1 Neuro-Fuzzy Pattern Classification ...... 296
11.3.4 Support Vector Machine for Classification ......... 302
11.4 Image Analysis and Classification Example: "Difficult-
To-Diagnose" Mammographic Microcalcifications ............ 303
11.5 Exercises ................................................ 306
11.6 References ............................................... 307
CHAPTER 12 IMAGE REGISTRATION ................................. 311
12.1 Rigid-Body Transformation ................................ 314
12.1.1 Affine Transformation ............................ 316
12.2 Principal Axes Registration .............................. 316
12.3 Iterative Principal Axes Registration .................... 319
12.4 Image Landmarks and Features-Based Registration .......... 323
12.4.1 Similarity Transformation for Point-Based
Registration ...................................... 323
12.4.2 Weighted Features-Based Registration .............. 324
12.5 Elastic Deformation-Based Registration ................... 325
12.6 Exercises ................................................ 330
12.7 References ............................................... 331
CHAPTER 13 IMAGE VISUALIZATION ................................ 335
13.1 Feature-Enhanced 2-D Image Display Methods ............... 336
13.2 Stereo Vision and Semi-3-D Display Methods ............... 336
13.3 Surface- and Volume-Based 3-D Display Methods ............ 338
13.3.1 Surface Visualization ............................. 339
13.3.2 Volume Visualization .............................. 344
13.4 VR-Based Interactive Visualization ....................... 347
13.4.1 Virtual Endoscopy ................................. 349
13.5 Exercises ................................................ 349
13.6 References ............................................... 350
CHAPTER 14 CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS IN MEDICAL IMAGING AND
IMAGE ANALYSIS ................................................ 353
14.1 Multiparameter Medical Imaging and Analysis .............. 353
14.2 Targeted Imaging ......................................... 357
14.3 Optical Imaging and Other Emerging Modalities ............ 357
14.3.1 Optical Microscopy ................................ 358
14.3.2 Optical Endoscopy ................................. 360
14.3.3 Optical Coherence Tomography ...................... 360
14.3.4 Diffuse Reflectance and Transillumination
Imaging ........................................... 362
14.3.5 Photoacoustic Imaging: An Emerging Technology ..... 363
14.4 Model-Based and Multiscale Analysis ...................... 364
14.5 References ............................................... 366
INDEX ......................................................... 369
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