Preface ................................................... xiii
Part I - Background Information
1 Coal as Fuel ................................................. 1
1.1 Organization of this Book ............................... 1
1.2 The History of Coal Use ................................. 2
1.3 Coal Use before the Industrial Revolution ............... 2
1.3.1 The Early History of U.S. Coal Mining and Use ..... 3
1.4 Coal Use during the Industrial Revolution ............... 4
1.5 The Post-Industrial Revolution Use of Coal .............. 5
1.6 An Overview of Energy in the United States .............. 6
1.7 Coal Production in the United States ................... 12
1.8 Coal Consumption in the United States .................. 20
1.9 U.S. Coal Exports and Imports .......................... 22
1.10 World Primary Energy Production and Consumption ........ 24
1.10.1 World Primary Energy Production ................. 24
1.10.2 World Primary Energy Consumption ................ 31
1.11 Projections of Energy Use and Coal's Contribution
to the Energy Mix ...................................... 35
1.11.1 World Consumption of Liquid Fuels ............... 38
1.11.2 World Consumption of Natural Gas ................ 39
1.11.3 World Consumption of Coal ....................... 39
1.11.4 World Consumption of Nuclear Energy ............. 44
1.11.5 World Consumption of Renewable Energy ........... 45
1.11.6 Energy Outlook for the United States ............ 46
1.12 Coal's Role in the U.S.'s 2001 Energy Policy ........... 49
2 The Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Coal ........... 53
2.1 The Definition of Coal ................................. 53
2.2 Origin of Coal ......................................... 53
2.3 Coalification .......................................... 54
2.4 The Classification of Coal ............................. 57
2.4.1 Basic Coal Analysis ............................. 57
2.4.2 The Ranks of Coal ............................... 59
2.4.3 The Types of Coal ............................... 61
2.4.4 The Grades of Coal .............................. 63
2.4.5 Classification Systems .......................... 63
3 The Worldwide Distribution of Coal .......................... 69
3.1 Coal Distribution and Resources ........................ 69
3.1.1 Coal Reserves throughout the World ............... 70
3.2 Major Coal-Producing Regions in the World .............. 74
3.2.1 North America ................................... 74
3.2.2 Eurasia ......................................... 78
3.2.3 Middle East, Asia, and Oceania .................. 80
3.2.4 Europe .......................................... 81
3.2.5 Africa .......................................... 82
3.2.6 Central and South America ....................... 83
4 The Effect of Coal Usage on Human Health and the
Environment ................................................. 85
4.1 Coal Mining ............................................ 86
4.1.1 Underground Mining .............................. 86
4.1.2 Surface Mining .................................. 96
4.1.3 Legislation and Reclamation ..................... 99
4.2 Coal Preparation ...................................... 100
4.2.1 Water Contamination from Preparation Plants .... 102
4.2.2 Air Contamination from Preparation Plants ...... 102
4.2.3 Refuse Contaminants from Preparation Plants .... 102
4.2.4 Health and Safety Issues ....................... 103
4.3 Coal Transportation ................................... 104
4.4 Coal Combustion By-Products ........................... 105
4.5 Emissions from Coal Combustion ........................ 107
4.5.1 Sulfur Oxides .................................. 107
4.5.2 Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 110
4.5.3 Particulate Matter ............................. 112
4.5.4 Organic Compounds .............................. 116
4.5.5 Carbon Monoxide ................................ 116
4.5.6 Trace Elements ................................. 117
4.5.7 Greenhouse Gases-Carbon Dioxide ................ 124
Part II - Coal Utilization Technologies
5 Introduction to Coal Utilization Technologies .............. 133
5.1 Coal Combustion ....................................... 133
5.1.1 Brief History of Boilers and Coal Combustion
Systems ........................................ 134
5.1.2 Basic Steam Fundamentals and their
Application to Boiler Development .............. 142
5.1.3 The Chemistry of Coal Combustion ............... 144
5.1.4 Coal Combustion Systems ........................ 149
5.1.5 Influence of Coal Properties on Utility
Boiler Design .................................. 166
5.2 Carbonization ......................................... 172
5.2.1 Brief History of Carbonization (High-
Temperature) ................................... 174
5.2.2 Coking Processes ............................... 175
5.2.3 Coal Properties for Coke Production ............ 178
5.2.4 Coking Conditions .............................. 179
5.2.5 Low-Temperature Carbonization .................. 179
5.3 Gasification .......................................... 183
5.3.1 Brief History of Coal Gasification ............. 183
5.3.2 Principles of Coal Gasification ................ 184
5.3.3 Gasifier Types ................................. 185
5.3.4 Influence of Coal Properties on Gasification ... 189
5.3.5 Regional Distribution of Gasification
Systems ........................................ 191
5.3.6 Commercial Gasification Systems ................ 194
5.4 Liquefaction .......................................... 205
5.4.1 The Beginning of the Synthetic Fuel Industry ... 206
5.4.2 Indirect Liquefaction-Fischer-Tropsch
Synthesis ...................................... 207
5.4.3 Direct Liquefaction ............................ 209
6 Anatomy of a Coal-Fired Power Plant ........................ 219
6.1 Coal Transport to the Power Plant ..................... 219
6.2 Coal Handling, Storage, and Processing ................ 223
6.2.1 Coal Handling .................................. 224
6.2.2 Coal Storage ................................... 225
6.2.3 Coal Processing/Size Reduction ................. 226
6.3 Steam Generation ...................................... 236
6.3.1 Furnace and Convection Pass .................... 236
6.3.2 Steam Superheaters and Reheaters ............... 237
6.3.3 Economizers .................................... 237
6.3.4 Steam Drums .................................... 237
6.3.5 Steam Temperature Controls ..................... 239
6.3.6 Air Heaters (Preheaters) ....................... 239
6.4 Steam Turbines and Electricity Generation ............. 239
6.4.1 Steam Turbines ................................. 239
6.4.2 Electric Generators ............................ 242
6.5 Steam Condensers and Cooling Towers ................... 242
6.5.1 Steam Condensers ............................... 242
6.5.2 Cooling Towers ................................. 243
6.6 Water Treatment ....................................... 243
6.7 Environmental Protection .............................. 246
6.8 Ash and By-Product Handling ........................... 247
6.8.1 Bottom Ash Systems ............................. 247
6.8.2 Convective Pass/Economizer Ash Systems ......... 247
6.8.3 Fly Ash Systems ................................ 248
6.8.4 Scrubber Sludge Systems ........................ 249
7 Clean Coal Technologies for Advanced Power Generation ...... 251
7.1 Power Cycles .......................................... 251
7.1.1 Rankine Cycle .................................. 251
7.1.2 The Brayton Cycle .............................. 253
7.1.3 Combined Cycle ................................. 253
7.2 Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants .................... 254
7.2.1 Advanced Pulverized Coal-Fired Plants .......... 255
7.2.2 Advanced Ultra-Supercritical Research and
Development .................................... 260
7.2.3 Oxy-Fuel Firing in Pulverized Coal-Fired
Boilers ........................................ 261
7.3 Fluidized-Bed Combustion .............................. 264
7.3.1 Introduction ................................... 264
7.3.2 Heat Transfer .................................. 266
7.3.3 Combustion Efficiency .......................... 267
7.3.4 Fuel Flexibility ............................... 267
7.3.5 Pollutant Formation and Control ................ 269
7.3.6 Supercritical Fluidized-Bed Boilers and Oxy-
Coal Firing in Fluidized-Bed Boilers ........... 282
7.4 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle ................ 282
7.4.1 Introduction ................................... 283
7.4.2 Gasification Island ............................ 284
7.4.3 Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery .............. 285
7.4.4 Combined Cycle Power Plant ..................... 290
7.4.5 IGCC with Carbon Capture ....................... 290
7.4.6 Benefits and Limits of IGCC .................... 291
7.4.7 Commercial Status .............................. 294
7.5 IGCC Research Needs ................................... 296
Part III - Emissions and Carbon Management
8 Coal-Fired Emissions and Legislative Action ................ 301
8.1 Major Coal-Related Health Episodes .................... 301
8.1.1 Pre-Industrial Revolution ...................... 301
8.1.2 Post-Industrial Revolution ..................... 302
8.2 History of Legislative Action for Coal-Fired Power
Plants ................................................ 303
8.2.1 Pre-1970 Legislation ........................... 303
8.2.2 The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 ........... 305
8.2.3 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 and
Prevention of Significant Deterioration ........ 315
8.2.4 Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 ............... 317
8.2.5 Additional NOx Regulations and Trading
Programs ....................................... 324
8.2.6 Clean Air Interstate Rule ...................... 327
8.2.7 Clean Air Mercury Rule ......................... 328
8.2.8 New Source Review .............................. 330
8.2.9 Fine Particulate Matter ........................ 332
8.2.10 Impending Legislation and Pollutants under
Consideration for Regulation ................... 333
8.3 Emissions Legislation in Other Countries .............. 337
8.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide ................................. 337
8.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 341
8.3.3 Particulate Matter ............................. 345
8.3.4 Trace Elements/Mercury ......................... 346
8.3.5 Carbon Dioxide ................................. 348
8.4 Air Quality and Coal-Fired Emissions .................. 349
8.4.1 Six Principal Pollutants ....................... 351
8.4.2 Acid Rain ...................................... 362
8.4.3 Hazardous Air Pollutants ....................... 366
8.4.4 Carbon Dioxide ................................. 369
9 Emissions Control Strategies for Power Plants .............. 375
9.1 Currently Regulated Emissions ......................... 376
9.1.1 Sulfur Dioxide ................................. 377
9.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 413
9.1.3 Particulate Matter ............................. 437
9.2 Pollutants with Pending Compliance Regulation ......... 459
9.2.1 Mercury ......................................... 459
9.3 Multipollutant Control ................................ 472
9.3.1 ECO Process .................................... 473
9.3.2 Airborne Process ............................... 474
9.3.3 Multipollutant Control for Smaller Coal-Fired
Boilers ........................................ 474
9.3.4 Nalco Mobotec Systems .......................... 474
9.3.5 Others ......................................... 475
10 CO2 Capture and Storage .................................... 483
10.1 CO2 Capture Technologies .............................. 485
10.1.1 Precombustion (IGCC) CO2 Capture ............... 486
10.1.2 Oxy-Fuel Combustion ............................ 487
10.1.3 Postcombustion CO2 Capture ..................... 487
10.1.4 Biomass Cofiring ............................... 496
10.2 Transport of CO2 ...................................... 497
10.3 C02 Storage ........................................... 498
10.3.1 Geologic Storage ............................... 498
10.3.2 Ocean Storage .................................. 500
10.3.3 Terrestrial Storage ............................ 501
10.3.4 Mineral Carbonation ............................ 501
10.4 Economics of CO2 Sequestration ........................ 502
10.4.1 Capture Costs .................................. 502
10.4.2 Costs of Transporting CO2 ...................... 507
10.4.3 Storage Costs .................................. 508
10.5 Permanence and Monitoring, Mitigation, and
Verification .......................................... 509
Part IV - Clean Coal Technology Programs and Energy Security
11 U.S. and International Activities for Near-Zero Emissions
during Electricity Generation .............................. 513
11.1 Introduction to U.S. Clean Coal Technology Programs ... 513
11.2 Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program ........... 514
11.2.1 CCTDP Evolution ................................ 515
11.2.2 CCTDP Funding and Costs ........................ 516
11.2.3 CCTDP Projects ................................. 516
11.2.4 CCTDP Accomplishments .......................... 537
11.3 Power Plant Improvement Initiative .................... 541
11.3.1 PPII Projects .................................. 542
11.3.2 Benefits of the PPII ........................... 546
11.4 Clean Coal Power Initiative ........................... 547
11.4.1 Program Importance ............................. 547
11.4.2 Round 1 CCPI Projects .......................... 548
11.4.3 Round 2 CCPI Projects .......................... 553
11.4.4 Round 3 CCPI (CCPI-3A and CCPI-3B) Projects .... 556
11.4.5 CCPI Benefits .................................. 558
11.5 Benefits of DOE's Clean Coal Technology Programs ...... 559
11.6 Vision 21 ............................................. 563
11.6.1 Vision 21 Technologies ......................... 563
11.6.2 Vision 21 Benefits ............................. 565
11.7 Future Gen ............................................ 565
11.8 DOE Carbon Sequestration Program ...................... 568
11.9 International Carbon Sequestration Programs ........... 572
11.10 International Clean Coal Technology and Carbon
Sequestration Activities .............................. 572
11.10.1 Canada ........................................ 573
11.10.2 Australia ..................................... 574
11.10.3 Germany ....................................... 576
11.10.4 Japan ......................................... 576
11.10.5 China ......................................... 577
11.10.6 Others ........................................ 578
12 Coal and Energy Security ................................... 585
12.1 Overview of U.S. Energy Security Issues ............... 586
12.2 The Future of Energy in the United States ............. 588
12.3 Energy and the Economy ................................ 589
12.4 Natural Gas Use in Power Generation ................... 592
12.5 Coal's Potential to Reduce U.S. Dependence on
Imported Crude Oil .................................... 594
12.6 Coal's Role in Future U.S. Electric Power
Generation ............................................ 596
12.7 Production of Hydrogen from Coal ...................... 603
12.8 Coal's Role in International Energy Security and
Sustainable Development ............................... 604
12.8.1 International Demand for Electricity ........... 604
12.8.2 Advanced Coal Technology Application Support
for Sustained Coal Utilization ................. 606
12.8.3 Energy Security ................................ 607
12.8.4 Sustainable Development ........................ 608
12.9 Concluding Statements ................................. 609
Part V - Supporting Information
Appendix A Regional Definitions .............................. 613
A.l Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) .................................... 613
A.2 Non-Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (Non-OECD) ................................ 613
A.3 European Union (EU) ................................... 614
A.4 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) ................................................ 614
Appendix В Commercial Gasification Facilities Worldwide ...... 615
Appendix С Coal-Fired Emission Factors ....................... 625
Appendix D Original List of Hazardous Air Pollutants ......... 651
Appendix E Initial 263 Units Identified in Phase I (SO2) of
the Acid Rain Program ...................................... 657
Index ...................................................... 661
|
