Preface ....................................................... XX1
Preface to the Third Edition ................................ xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition ................................. xxv
Preface to the First Edition ................................ xxvii
Author ....................................................... xxix
Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................... 1
Chapter 2 Stoichiometry ........................................ 5
2.1 Units and Fundamental Relationships ........................ 5
2.1.1 Units ............................................... 5
2.1.2 Gas Laws ............................................ 5
2.1.2.1 Perfect Gas Law ............................ 5
2.1.2.2 Standard Conditions ........................ 8
2.1.3 Energy ............................................. 10
2.1.3.1 Heat of Reaction .......................... 10
2.1.3.2 Sensible Heat of Gases .................... 12
2.1.3.3 Sensible Heat of Solids ................... 14
2.1.3.4 Latent Heat ............................... 15
2.1.3.5 Decomposition and Ionization .............. 15
2.1.3.6 Kinetic and Potential Energy .............. 17
2.1.3.7 Heat Losses ............................... 17
2.2 Systems Analysis .......................................... 18
2.2.1 General Approach ................................... 18
2.2.1.1 Basic Data ................................ 18
2.2.1.2 Basis of Computation ...................... 19
2.2.1.3 Assumptions regarding Combustion
Chemistry ................................. 19
2.2.1.4 Approach to Computation ................... 20
2.2.2 Analyses ........................................... 20
2.2.2.1 Waste Component Analysis .................. 21
2.2.2.2 Proximate Analysis ........................ 22
2.2.2.3 Ultimate Analysis ......................... 22
2.2.2.4 Thermochemical Analysis ................... 23
2.2.2.5 Special Analysis .......................... 23
2.2.2.6 Regulatory/Process Definitions ............ 24
2.2.2.7 Data Analysis ............................. 24
2.2.2.8 Data Cost ................................. 27
2.3 Material Balances ......................................... 27
2.3.1 Balances Based on Fuel Analysis .................... 27
2.3.2 Balances Based on Flue Gas Analysis ................ 31
2.3.3 Cross-Checking between Fuel and Flue Gas
Analysis ........................................... 33
2.4 Energy Balances ........................................... 33
2.5 Equilibrium ............................................... 38
2.6 Combustion Kinetics ....................................... 45
2.6.1 Introduction to Kinetics ........................... 45
2.6.1.1 Overall Kinetics .......................... 45
2.6.1.2 Mechanism ................................. 48
2.6.2 Kinetics of Carbon Monoxide Oxidation .............. 50
2.6.3 Kinetics of Soot Oxidation ......................... 53
2.6.4 Kinetics of Waste Pyrolysis and Oxidation .......... 55
2.6.4.1 Kinetic Limitations as Combustor Failure
Modes ..................................... 55
2.6.4.2 Laboratory Kinetic Data ................... 56
2.6.4.3 Ignition Temperature Data ................. 62
2.6.4.4 Flashpoint and Explosive/Flammability
Limits Estimation ......................... 63
Chapter 3 Selected Topics on Combustion Processes ............. 67
3.1 Gaseous Combustion ........................................ 67
3.1.1 The Premixed (Bunsen) Laminar Flame ................ 67
3.1.2 The Diffusion Flame ................................ 68
3.2 Liquid Combustion ......................................... 70
3.2.1 Pool Burning ....................................... 70
3.2.1.1 Pool Spreading ............................ 70
3.2.1.2 Pool Burning Rate ......................... 71
3.2.2 Droplet Burning .................................... 72
3.3 Solid Combustion .......................................... 76
3.3.1 Thermal Decomposition .............................. 78
3.3.1.1 Pyrolysis Time ............................ 79
3.3.1.2 Pyrolysis Products ........................ 79
3.3.1.3 Thermal Decomposition Kinetics ............ 83
3.3.2 Particle Burning Processes ......................... 91
3.3.3 Mass Burning Processes ............................. 93
3.3.3.1 In-Bed Equilibria ......................... 93
3.3.3.2 The Boudouard Reaction .................... 94
Chapter 4 Waste Characterization .............................. 95
4.1 General ................................................... 95
4.1.1 Chemistry .......................................... 95
4.1.2 Heat of Combustion ................................. 98
4.1.3 Ash Fusion Characteristics ........................ 101
4.1.3.1 Coal and Biomass Ash Fusion .............. 101
4.1.3.2 Ash Slag Surface Tension ................. 108
4.1.4 Smoking Tendency .................................. 108
4.2 Solid Waste 1 ............................................ 109
4.2.1 Solid Waste Composition ........................... 109
4.2.1.1 Mixed Municipal Refuse ................... 109
4.2.1.2 Construction and Demolition Waste ........ 112
4.2.1.3 Institutional, Commercial, and
Industrial Waste ......................... 119
4.2.2 Solid Waste Properties ............................ 121
4.2.2.1 Chemical Analysis ........................ 122
4.2.2.2 Bulk Density ............................. 129
4.2.2.3 Thermal Parameters ....................... 129
A.2.2.4 Municipal Refuse as a Fuel ............... 129
4.2.2.5 Other Wastes ............................. 140
4.2.3 Biological Wastewater Sludge ...................... 149
4.2.4 Sludge Composition ................................ 150
4.2.5 Sludge Properties ................................. 151
4.2.5.1 Chemistry ................................ 151
4.2.5.2 Physical Properties ...................... 151
4.2.5.3 Thermal Properties ....................... 154
Chapter 5 Combustion System Enclosures and Heat Recovery ..... 159
5.1 Enclosures ............................................... 159
5.1.1 Refractory Enclosure Systems ..................... 159
5.1.1.1 Composition of Refractories .............. 160
5.1.1.2 Properties of Refractories ............... 162
5.1.1.3 Selection of Refractories ................ 172
5.1.1.4 Refractory Design and Construction
Practices ................................ 173
5.2 Water-Cooled Enclosures and Heat Recovery Systems ........ 178
5.2.1 External Cooling .................................. 179
5.2.2 Waste Heat Boilers ................................ 179
5.2.2.1 Fire-Tube Waste Heat Boilers ............. 179
5.2.2.2 Water-Tube Waste Heat Boilers ............ 179
5.2.3 Waterwall Boiler Enclosures ....................... 180
5.2.3.1 Water Treatment .......................... 180
5.2.3.2 Deaeration ............................... 186
5.2.3.3 Feedwater Pumping ........................ 186
5.2.3.4 Feedwater Heating ........................ 187
5.2.3.5 Boiler ................................... 187
5.2.3.6 Metal Wastage ............................ 188
5.2.3.7 Steam Thermodynamics ..................... 191
5.3 Heat Transfer ............................................ 191
5.3.1 Conduction ........................................ 191
5.3.2 Convection ........................................ 195
5.3.3 Radiation ......................................... 195
5.3.4 Heat-Transfer Implications in Design .............. 196
5.4 Slagging and Fouling ..................................... 196
Chapter 6 Fluid-Flow Considerations in Incinerator
Applications ....................................... 199
6.1 Driven Flow .............................................. 199
6.1.1 Jet Flow .......................................... 199
6.1.1.1 Introduction ............................. 199
6.1.1.2 Use of Jets for Combustion Control ....... 201
6.1.1.3 Jet Dynamics and Design Guidelines ....... 206
6.1.2 Swirling Flows .................................... 226
6.1.2.1 Axial Swirl Burner: Isothermal
Performance .............................. 226
6.1.2.2 Cyclone Combustion Chamber: Isothermal
Performance .............................. 228
6.1.2.3 Axial Swirl Burner: Combustion Effects ... 229
6.1.2.4 Cyclone Combustion Chamber: Combustion
Effects .................................. 232
6.2 Induced Flow ............................................. 233
6.2.1 JET Recirculation ................................ 233
6.2.1.1 Sidewall Jets ............................ 234
6.2.1.2 Axial Jets ............................... 236
6.2.2 Buoyancy ......................................... 238
6.3 Mixing and Residence Times ............................... 240
6.3.1 Fundamental Distribution Relationships ............ 240
6.3.2 Common Distribution Functions ..................... 241
6.3.2.1 Plug Flow ................................ 241
6.3.2.2 Perfect ("Well-Stirred") Mixing .......... 241
6.3.3 Failure Modes ..................................... 241
6.3.4 Residence Time Scenarios .......................... 242
6.3.4.1 Perfect Mixing with Plug Flow ............ 242
6.3.4.2 Perfect Mixing with Dead Space ........... 242
6.3.4.3 Perfect Mixing with Partial Short
Circuiting ............................... 242
6.3.4.4 General Case ............................. 244
Chapter 7 Materials Preparation and Handling ................. 247
7.1 Solid Wastes ............................................. 247
7.1.1 General ........................................... 247
7.1.2 Pit and Crane Handling of Solid Wastes ............ 249
7.1.3 Size Reduction of MS Ws ........................... 251
7.1.3.1 Horizontal Shaft Hammermill Shredders .... 251
7.1.3.2 Vertical Shaft Mills ..................... 254
7.1.3.3 Flail Mills .............................. 255
7.1.3.4 Rotary Shears ............................ 255
7.1.3.5 Noise Levels during Waste Processing ..... 256
7.1.4 Conveying of Solid Wastes ......................... 256
7.1.4.1 Belt Conveyors ........................... 257
7.1.4.2 Vibrating Conveyors ...................... 260
7.1.4.3 Apron Conveyors .......................... 260
7.1.5 Size Classification and Screening ................. 260
7.1.5.1 Air Classification ....................... 260
7.1.5.2 Screens .................................. 261
7.1.5.3 Trommels ................................. 261
7.1.6 Ferrous Metal Separation .......................... 262
7.2 Other Specialized Handling Operations .................... 264
7.2.1 Screw Feeders and Conveyors ....................... 264
7.3 Biosolids Handling ....................................... 265
7.3.1 General ........................................... 265
7.3.1.1 Preprocessing Steps ...................... 265
7.3.1.2 Bins and Hoppers ......................... 266
7.3.1.3 Sludge Pumps ............................. 267
7.3.1.4 Belt Conveyors ........................... 268
7.3.1.5 Screw Conveyors .......................... 269
7.3.2 Rheology Factors in Sludge Pumping ................ 269
Chapter 8 Incineration Systems for Municipal Solid Wastes .... 275
8.1 Performance Objectives ................................... 276
8.1.1 Throughput and Refuse Heat Content ................ 276
8.1.2 Firing Diagram: The Overall Process Envelope ...... 277
8.1.3 Plant Availability ................................ 278
8.1.3.1 Power Outages ............................ 279
8.1.3.2 Equipment Outages ........................ 279
8.2 Site Design Considerations ............................... 280
8.2.1 Site Grading ...................................... 280
8.2.2 Site Drainage ..................................... 280
8.2.3 Site Traffic and Road Considerations .............. 281
8.3 Collection and Delivery of Refuse ........................ 281
8.4 Refuse Handling and Storage .............................. 282
8.4.1 Tipping Floor-Based Waste Storage and Reclaim
Systems ........................................... 282
8.4.2 Pit- and Crane-Based Waste Storage and Reclaim
Systems ........................................... 283
8.4.3 Bin Storage and Reclaim Systems for RDF ........... 285
8.5 Size Control and Salvage ................................. 287
8.6 Incinerator Feed Systems ................................. 287
8.6.1 Feed Systems for Floor Dump Receipt and Storage ... 287
8.6.2 Feed Systems for Pit and Crane Receipt and
Storage Systems ................................... 288
8.6.2.1 Mass Burn Systems ........................ 288
8.6.2.2 RDF Burning Systems ...................... 288
8.7 Grates and Hearths ....................................... 292
8.7.1 Stationary Hearth ................................. 293
8.7.2 Rotary Kiln ....................................... 293
8.7.3 Stationary Grates ................................. 294
8.7.4 Mechanical Grates: Batch Operations ............... 294
8.7.4.1 Cylindrical Furnace Grates ............... 294
8.7.4.2 Rectangular Batch Furnace Grates ......... 295
8.7.5 Mechanical Grates: Continuous Operations .......... 295
8.7.5.1 Reciprocating Grate ...................... 295
8.7.5.2 Rocking Grate ............................ 296
8.7.5.3 Vibrating, Oscillating, and Impact
Grates ................................... 298
8.7.5.4 Traveling Grate .......................... 299
8.7.5.5 Drum Grate ............................... 300
8.7.6 O'Conner Rotary Combustor (Kiln) .................. 301
8.7.7 Fluid Bed Systems ................................. 301
8.7.7.1 BFB Systems .............................. 301
8.7.7.2 CFB FB Systems ........................... 304
8.8 Incinerator Furnace Enclosures ........................... 304
8.8.1 Refractory Enclosures ............................. 305
8.8.1.1 General .................................. 305
8.8.1.2 Refractories for Small Multiple-Chamber
Incinerators ............................. 306
8.8.1.3 Refractories for Large Incinerators ...... 307
8.8.2 Other Enclosure-Related Design Considerations ..... 307
8.8.2.1 Air In-Leakage ........................... 307
8.8.2.2 Shape Factors ............................ 307
8.8.2.3 Heat Release Rate ........................ 310
8.8.2.4 Secondary Combustion Chambers ............ 311
8.8.2.5 Slagging and Clinkering .................. 312
8.8.2.6 Temperature and Velocity Distribution .... 312
8.9 Energy Markets and Energy Recovery ....................... 313
8.9.1 Market Size ....................................... 313
8.9.2 Market Type ....................................... 314
8.9.3 Market Reliability ................................ 314
8.9.4 Revenue Reliability ............................... 314
8.10 Combustion Air ........................................... 315
8.10.1 Underfire Air ..................................... 315
8.10.2 Overfire Air ...................................... 316
8.10.3 Secondary Air ..................................... 316
8.10.4 Combustion Air Fans ............................... 316
8.10.5 Air Preheat ....................................... 317
8.10.5.1 Direct Air Heaters ....................... 317
8.10.5.2 Air to Steam Coil Air Heaters ............ 318
8.10.6 Flue Gas Recirculation ............................ 318
8.11 Ash Removal and Handling ................................. 319
8.11.1 Overview of Ash Problems .......................... 319
8.11.2 Ash Properties .................................... 320
8.11.3 Bottom Ash ........................................ 324
8.11.3.1 Wet Systems .............................. 325
8.11.3.2 Dry Systems .............................. 326
8.11.4 Siftings .......................................... 326
8.11.5 Fly Ash ........................................... 326
8.11.6 Materials Recovery from Ash ....................... 327
8.11.6.1 Ferrous Metal Recovery ................... 327
8.11.6.2 Roadbeds and Earthworks .................. 327
8.11.6.3 Vitrification ............................ 329
8.11.6.4 Financial Considerations in Residue
Processing ............................... 329
8.12 Flue Gas Conditioning .................................... 329
8.12.1 Cooling by Water Evaporation ...................... 329
8.12.1.1 Wet Bottom Methods ....................... 330
8.12.1.2 Dry Bottom Methods ....................... 331
8.12.2 Cooling by Air Dilution ........................... 334
8.12.3 Cooling by Heat Withdrawal ........................ 334
8.12.4 Steam Plumes ...................................... 335
8.13 Environmental Pollution Control .......................... 337
8.13.1 Air Pollution ..................................... 337
8.13.1.1 Composition of the Flue Gases ............ 337
8.13.1.2 Particulate Matter ....................... 337
8.13.1.3 Smoke .................................... 338
8.13.1.4 Odor ..................................... 338
8.13.1.5 Dust ..................................... 340
8.13.2 Water Pollution ................................... 340
8.13.3 Noise Pollution ................................... 340
8.14 Induced Draft (ID) Fan ................................... 341
8.14.1 Fan Types ......................................... 341
8.14.2 Inlet and Outlet Connections ...................... 341
8.14.3 Fan Control ....................................... 341
8.14.3.1 Damper Control ........................... 342
8.14.3.2 Inlet Vane Control ....................... 342
8.14.3.3 Hydraulic and Magnetic Drive Control ..... 342
8.14.3.4 Variable Speed Drives .................... 342
8.15 Incinerator Stacks ....................................... 342
8.16 RDF Systems .............................................. 344
8.16.1 RDF Processing .................................... 346
8.16.2 RDF Combustion Systems ............................ 346
8.16.2.1 Spreader Stoker Firing ................... 347
8.16.2.2 Suspension Burning ....................... 348
8.17 Instrumentation and Control .............................. 353
8.17.1 Instrumentation and Control System Design
Approach .......................................... 354
8.17.2 Process Measurements and Field Instruments ........ 354
8.17.3 Control System Levels ............................. 355
8.17.3.1 Local Control Stations ................... 356
8.17.3.2 Local Control Panels ..................... 356
8.17.3.3 Central Control Room ..................... 357
8.17.3.4 Data Logging ............................. 357
8.17.4 General Control Philosophy ........................ 357
8.17.4.1 General Control Overview ................. 357
8.17.4.2 Automated Refuse Weighing ................ 357
8.17.4.3 Monitoring and Control of Refuse Feed
Rate ..................................... 358
8.17.4.4 Airflow Control .......................... 359
8.17.4.5 Fire Position Control .................... 359
8.17.4.6 Combustion Process Control ............... 359
8.17.4.7 APC Train ................................ 362
8.17.4.8 Ash Handling System ...................... 364
8.17.4.9 Auxiliaries .............................. 365
8.17.5 Portable Instruments .............................. 365
8.17.6 Summary ........................................... 365
8.18 Operations ............................................... 365
8.18.1 Mass Burn Incineration ............................ 369
8.18.2 RDF Incineration .................................. 369
8.19 Other Incineration Systems for Solid Wastes .............. 371
8.19.1 Multiple Chamber: Hearth or Fixed Grate ........... 371
8.19.2 Multiple Chamber: Moving Grate .................... 374
8.19.3 Multiple Chamber: Hearth and Afterburner .......... 375
8.19.4 Modular Starved Air ............................... 376
8.19.5 Open Pit Type ..................................... 376
8.19.6 Conical (Tepee) Type .............................. 379
8.19.7 Medical Waste Incinerators ........................ 380
8.19.7.1 Facilities ............................... 380
8.19.7.2 Incineration Systems ..................... 381
8.19.7.3 Environmental Controls ................... 381
Chapter 9 Incineration Systems for Sludge Wastes ............. 383
9.1 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Systems .......................... 384
9.1.1 Process Characteristics ........................... 384
9.1.1.1 Fully Oxidizing Mode ..................... 384
9.1.1.2 Starved Air (Pyrolysis) Mode ............. 389
9.1.2 Process Relationships ............................. 391
9.1.2.1 Retention Time ........................... 391
9.1.2.2 Heat Transfer ............................ 391
9.1.2.3 Pyrolysis and Combustion Processes ....... 391
9.1.2.4 Heat and Material Balance
Characteristics .......................... 392
9.1.3 Operating Characteristics ......................... 393
9.1.4 General Environmental Considerations .............. 396
9.1.4.1 Oxidizing Mode ........................... 396
9.1.4.2 Pyrolysis Mode ........................... 397
9.2 Fluidized Bed Systems .................................... 397
9.2.1 Process Characteristics ........................... 399
9.2.1.1 Fully Oxidizing Mode ..................... 402
9.2.1.2 Starved Air (Pyrolysis) Mode ............. 402
9.2.2 Process Relationships (Oxidizing Mode) ............ 402
9.2.2.1 Heat and Material Balance
Characteristics .......................... 402
9.2.2.2 Bed Solids and Bed Defluidization ........ 403
9.2.2.3 Distribution Plate ....................... 408
9.2.2.4 Sludge Feed .............................. 408
9.2.2.5 Air Supply and Flow Balance .............. 409
9.2.2.6 Combustion Air Preheat ................... 409
9.2.2.7 Freeboard ................................ 410
9.2.3 Operating Characteristics ......................... 410
9.2.4 General Environmental Considerations .............. 413
9.3 Slagging Combustion Systems for Biological Sludge ........ 413
9.3.1 Kubota System ..................................... 414
9.3.2 Itoh Takuma System ................................ 415
9.3.3 Ebara CFB Gasification/Slagging System ............ 415
Chapter 10 Incineration Systems for Liquid and Gaseous
Wastes ............................................. 417
10.1 Liquid Waste Incinerators ................................ 417
10.1.1 Liquid Storage .................................... 417
10.1.2 Atomization ....................................... 418
10.1.2.1 Low-Pressure Air Atomization ............. 419
10.1.2.2 High-Pressure Air or Steam Atomization ... 420
10.1.2.3 Mechanical Atomization ................... 420
10.1.2.4 Rotary Cup Atomization ................... 420
10.1.2.5 Secondary Atomization .................... 421
10.1.3 Ignition Tiles .................................... 421
10.1.4 Combustion Space .................................. 422
10.1.5 Incinerator Types ................................. 423
10.1.5.1 Axial or Side-Fired Nonswirling Type ..... 423
10.1.5.2 Vortex Type .............................. 424
10.1.5.3 Low NOx Type ............................. 424
10.1.5.4 Submerged Combustion Type ................ 425
10.1.6 Burner Noise ...................................... 426
10.2 Incinerators for Gases (Afterburners) .................... 427
10.2.1 Energy Conservation Impacts on Afterburner
Design ............................................ 427
10.2.2 Current Afterburner Engineering Technology ........ 428
10.2.2.1 Direct Flame Afterburner Technology ...... 428
10.2.2.2 Catalytic Afterburner Technology ......... 432
10.2.3 Afterburner Systems ............................... 433
10.2.3.1 Direct Flame Afterburner Systems ......... 434
10.2.3.2 Hares .................................... 435
10.2.3.3 Catalytic Afterburner Systems ............ 441
10.2.4 Potential Applications ............................ 444
10.3 Operations and Safety .................................... 445
10.3.1 Operations ........................................ 445
10.3.2 Safety ............................................ 447
Chapter 11 Incineration Systems for Hazardous Wastes .......... 449
11.1 General .................................................. 449
11.1.1 Receiving and Storage Systems ..................... 452
11.1.1.1 Waste Storage System ..................... 452
11.1.1.2 Freezing Liquids ......................... 453
11.1.1.3 Storage Problems ......................... 454
11.1.2 Firing Systems .................................... 454
11.1.2.1 Blending ................................. 454
11.1.2.2 Atomizer Characteristics ................. 454
11.1.2.3 Solids Feeding ........................... 456
11.1.2.4 Containerization ......................... 457
11.1.2.5 Oxidation Strategy ....................... 458
11.1.3 Control Systems ................................... 458
11.1.4 Refractory ........................................ 458
11.1.5 APC for Hazardous Waste Incinerators .............. 460
11.1.6 Evaluation Tests and POHC Selection ............... 462
11.1.6.1 Thermal Behavior ........................ 463
11.1.6.2 Chemical and Physical Characteristics ... 463
11.1.6.3 Incinerator Design Characteristics ...... 463
11.1.6.4 Waste Characteristics and the Use of
Surrogates .............................. 463
11.1.6.5 Sampling and Analysis Issues ............ 464
11.2 Rotary Kiln Systems ...................................... 464
11.2.1 Sludge Incineration Applications .................. 467
11.2.2 Solid Waste Incineration Applications ............. 467
11.2.2.1 Ashing Kilns ............................. 467
11.2.2.2 Slagging Kilns ........................... 467
11.2.2.3 Secondary Chambers ....................... 470
11.3 Circulating Fluid Bed .................................... 471
11.3.1 CFB Hydrodynamics ................................. 471
11.4 Thermal Desorption ....................................... 472
11.4.1 SOIL Parameters ................................... 473
11.4.1.1 Moisture Effects ......................... 473
11.4.1.2 Coarse-Grained Soils ..................... 475
11.4.1.3 Fine-Grained Soils ....................... 475
11.4.2 TD Systems ........................................ 476
11.4.2.1 Rotary Dryer Systems ..................... 476
11.4.2.2 Heated-Screw Systems ..................... 477
11.4.2.3 Off-Gas Treatment ........................ 477
11.4.3 Operating Parameters ............................. 477
11.4.3.1 Temperature .............................. 477
11.4.3.2 Residence Time ........................... 478
11.4.3.3 Sweep Gas ................................ 478
11.4.4 Remediation Performance ........................... 478
11.5 Plasma Technology ........................................ 479
Chapter 12 Conversion Technology for Solid Wastes ............. 481
12.1 Introduction ............................................. 481
12.2 Gasification Technology Processes ........................ 482
12.2.1 Preprocessing ..................................... 482
12.2.2 Heating ........................................... 483
12.2.2.1 General .................................. 483
12.2.2.2 Hot Surfaces ............................. 483
12.2.2.3 Hot Gases ................................ 484
12.2.2.4 Direct Heating ........................... 486
12.2.2.5 Partial Combustion ....................... 486
12.2.3 Gasification ...................................... 486
12.3 Conversion Technology Product Streams .................... 488
12.3.1 Fuel Gas Intermediates ............................ 488
12.3.2 Syn-Gas Intermediates ............................. 489
12.3.3 Biosynthesis Nutrients ............................ 489
12.3.4 Sidestreams and Residues .......................... 490
12.3.4.1 RDF Unprocessables ....................... 491
12.3.4.2 Recyclable Metals ........................ 491
12.3.4.3 Vitrified Ash ............................ 491
12.3.4.4 Ash and Char Solids ...................... 491
12.3.4.5 Wastewater Streams ....................... 491
12.3.4.6 Other Solid Streams ...................... 492
12.4 Conversion Technology Examples ........................... 492
12.4.1 Pyrolysis ......................................... 494
12.4.1.1 Hot Surface Heating (Pan American
Resources Batch Process Technology) ...... 494
12.4.1.2 Hot Surface Heating (International
Environmental Solutions Continuous Feed
Process Technology) ...................... 494
12.4.1.3 Hot Gas (Steam) Heating (SilvaGas
Technology) .............................. 497
12.4.1.4 Hot Gas (Alter NRG NTA Plasma
Technology) .............................. 502
12.4.1.5 Transferred Arc Plasma Heating (InEnTec
LLC Plasma Enhanced Melter "РЕМ"
Technology) .............................. 508
12.4.2 Partial Combustion ................................ 509
12.4.2.1 Air-Oxidized Conventional Fluidized Bed
(TPS Termiska AB Technology) ............. 510
12.4.2.2 Air-Oxidized Internal CFB (Ebara Ltd.
TwinRec Technology) ...................... 515
12.4.2.3 Air/Oxygen-Oxidized Upflow Shaft
Furnace Gasifier (Nippon Steel
Engineering Co. Ltd. Technology) ......... 518
12.4.2.4 Air-Oxidized Hearth Gasifier (Consutech
Systems, LLC Technology) ................. 519
12.4.2.5 Air/Oxygen-Oxidized Hearth Gasification
(Thermoselect Technology) ................ 521
Chapter 13 Air Pollution Aspects of Incineration Processes .... 533
13.1 Air Pollutants from Combustion Processes ................. 533
13.1.1 Particulate Matter ................................ 535
13.1.1.1 General .................................. 535
13.1.1.2 Gaseous and Liquid Wastes and Fuels ...... 536
13.1.1.3 Sludge ................................... 537
13.1.1.4 Solid Wastes and Fuels ................... 538
13.1.2 Combustible Solids, Liquids, and Gases ............ 547
13.1.2.1 Pollutant Characterization ............... 548
13.1.2.2 Mechanisms of Formation .................. 549
13.1.2.3 Concepts for Control ..................... 549
13.1.3 Gaseous Pollutants Related to Fuel Chemistry ...... 550
13.1.3.1 Sulfur Oxides ............................ 550
13.1.3.2 Halogens and Their Acids ................. 551
13.1.4 Nitrogen Oxides ................................... 553
13.1.4.1 Thermal Generation ....................... 553
13.1.4.2 Fuel Nitrogen Generation ................. 554
13.1.4.3 Emission Estimation ...................... 555
13.2 Air Toxics ............................................... 558
13.2.1 Metal Emission Rates .............................. 560
13.2.1.1 General Factors Affecting Heavy Metal
Emission Rates ........................... 560
13.2.1.2 Municipal Waste Combustors ............... 561
13.2.1.3 Hazardous Waste Incinerators ............. 564
13.2.1.4 FB Sewage Sludge Incinerators ............ 564
13.2.1.5 Multiple-Hearth Sewage Sludge
Incinerators ............................. 569
13.2.2 Emissions of Organic Compounds .................... 572
13.2.2.1 General .................................. 572
13.2.2.2 Emissions of Specific Compounds .......... 574
Chapter 14 Air Pollution Control for Incineration Systems ..... 581
14.1 Equipment Options for Incinerator APC .................... 582
14.1.1 Settling Chambers ................................. 582
14.1.2 Cyclones and Inertial Collectors .................. 583
14.1.3 Wet Scrubbers ..................................... 585
14.1.3.1 Venturi Scrubbers ........................ 586
14.1.3.2 Spray Tower Scrubbers .................... 588
14.1.3.3 Tray/Sieve Scrubbers ..................... 589
14.1.3.4 Subcooling and Plume Reduction ........... 589
14.1.3.5 Mist Elimination ......................... 591
14.1.4 Electrostatic Precipitators ....................... 595
14.1.4.1 Dry ESP Systems .......................... 595
14.1.4.2 Wet ESP Systems .......................... 601
14.1.5 Fabric Filter (Baghouse) .......................... 601
14.1.5.1 Baghouse Classifications ................. 605
14.1.5.2 Other Design Features .................... 607
14.1.5.3 Bag Life ................................. 608
14.1.5.4 Operational Characteristics .............. 608
14.1.5.5 Baghouse Applications for Incineration
Systems .................................. 608
14.1.6 Absorbers ......................................... 609
14.1.6.1 Wet Packed Towers for Removal of
Pollutant Gases .......................... 610
14.1.6.2 Dry Absorbent Contactors for Acid Gas
Pollutant Control ........................ 611
14.1.6.3 Dry Absorbent Contactors for Volatile
Pollutant Control ........................ 612
14.1.6.4 Semidry Absorbent Contactors for
Gaseous Pollutant Control ................ 612
14.1.7 Specialized Abatement Technology .................. 614
14.1.7.1 NOx Control .............................. 614
14.1.7.2 Mercury Control .......................... 620
14.1.7.3 Control of Dioxins and Other
Hydrocarbon Pollutants ................... 623
14.1.7.4 Dry Sorbent Injection Technology ......... 626
14.2 Control Strategies for Incinerator Air Pollutant
Control .................................................. 627
14.2.1 APC through Process Optimization .................. 627
14.2.2 Control Selections for Incinerator Types .......... 628
14.2.2.1 Municipal Refuse Incinerators ............ 628
14.2.2.2 Biological Wastewater Treatment Sludge
Incinerators ............................. 629
14.2.2.3 Hazardous Waste Incinerators ............. 631
14.2.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring .................... 632
14.2.3.1 General .................................. 632
14.2.3.2 Nondispersive Infrared Monitoring ........ 633
14.2.3.3 Triboelectric FF Leak Monitoring ......... 633
14.2.4 APC to Achieve Air Quality Objectives ............ 634
14.2.4.1 General .................................. 634
14.2.4.2 Simplified Dispersion Calculations ....... 635
14.2.4.3 Analysis for Odor Sources ................ 640
Chapter 15 Approaches to Incinerator Selection and Design ..... 645
15.1 General .................................................. 645
15.1.1 Characterize the Waste ............................ 645
15.1.2 Lay Out the System in Blocks ...................... 645
15.1.3 Establish Performance Objectives .................. 645
15.1.4 Develop Heat and Material Balances ................ 646
15.1.5 Develop Incinerator Envelope ...................... 646
15.1.6 Evaluate Incinerator Dynamics ..................... 646
15.1.7 Develop the Designs of Auxiliary Equipment ........ 646
15.1.8 Develop Incinerator Economics ..................... 646
15.1.8.1 General .................................. 646
15.1.9 Build and Operate ................................. 652
15.2 System Selection for Developing Technologies ............. 652
15.2.1 Consider the Waste ................................ 653
15.2.2 Benefit from the Power of Process Analysis ........ 653
15.2.3 Analyze the Data .................................. 654
15.2.4 Solicit Input from the Operators .................. 655
15.2.5 Use Your Common Sense ............................. 655
15.2.6 Summary Observations .............................. 656
Appendix A Symbols—A Partial List ............................. 657
Appendix В Conversion Factors ................................. 661
Appendix С Periodic Table of Elements ......................... 665
Appendix D Combustion Properties of Coal, Oil, Natural
Gases, and Other Materials ......................... 667
Appendix E Pyrometric Cone Equivalent ......................... 679
Appendix F Spreadsheet Templates and Analysis Programs for
Use in Combustion Engineering Calculations ......... 681
F.l Heat and Material Balance Spreadsheets .............. 682
F.l.l Input ........................................ 682
F.l.2 Methodology .................................. 684
F.1.3 Output ....................................... 684
F.1.4 Extended Applications of the Basic
Spreadsheet .................................. 684
F.2 Heat of Combustion Calculator: Hcomb.xls ............ 685
F.3 Moisture Correction in Refuse Analyses:
Moisture.xls ........................................ 685
F.4 Equilibrium Constant Estimation: Equilibrium.xls .... 689
F.5 Steam Thermodynamic Properties: STEAM.exe Program ... 689
F.6 Molecular Weight Calculator: MOLWT.exe .............. 691
F.7 Ash Fusion Temperature Analyses: ASHWIN.exe ......... 692
F.8 Vapor Pressure Estimation: VP.exe ................... 696
F.9 Enthalpy Calculator: ENTHALPY.exe ................... 697
F.10 Equilibrium Constant Calculator: EQUILIBRIUM.exe .... 698
Appendix G Thermal Stability Indices ......................... 699
Appendix H Definitions of Terms—Medical Wastes ............... 715
Appendix I List of Acronyms .................................. 717
Notes and References .......................................... 719
Index ......................................................... 745
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