The Author ..................................................... xv
Introduction ................................................. xvii
1 The Case for Renewable Energy Processes ...................... 1
1.1 Global Trends ........................................... 1
1.1.1 Global Energy Reserves and Trends ................ 2
1.1.2 Traditional Energy Sources and Costs ............. 3
1.1.2.1 Oil and Natural Gas ..................... 7
1.1.2.2 Coal ................................... 13
1.1.2.3 Nuclear ................................ 15
1.2 Global Warming ......................................... 19
1.2.1 Greenhouse Gases ................................ 20
1.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle ........................ 21
1.2.3 Consequences of Carbon Emissions ................ 23
1.2.4 Ice Caps and Glaciers ........................... 25
1.2.5 Ocean Currents and Hurricanes ................... 27
1.2.6 Advanced Strategies to Reduce Carbon
Emissions ....................................... 29
1.2.6.1 Taxation or Cap-and-Trade .............. 30
1.2.6.2 Sequestering, Carbon Capture and
Conversion into Methanol ............... 32
1.2.7 Energy Politics, Economics, and the Lobbies ..... 33
1.2.7.1 The United Nations ..................... 35
1.2.7.2 United States .......................... 37
1.2.7.3 Europe ................................. 42
1.2.7.4 Asia ................................... 43
1.2.7.5 OPEC Countries ......................... 44
1.2.8 Transportation Trends ........................... 45
1.2.8.1 Biofuels and Multifuel Vehicles ........ 46
1.2.8.2 Hybrid Cars ............................ 47
1.2.8.3 Electric Cars .......................... 48
1.2.8.4 Fuel Cells vs. Batteries ............... 49
1.2.8.5 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Cars ................ 49
1.2.8.6 Hydrogen 1С Engine ..................... 52
1.2.8.7 Hydrogen Filling Stations .............. 53
1.3 Non-Solar Renewable Technologies ....................... 54
1.3.1 Ethanol, Biofuels, Biodiesel, and
Bioplastics ..................................... 54
1.3.1.1 Ethanol ................................ 56
1.3.1.2 Biodiesel .............................. 57
1.3.2 Wind Turbines ................................... 58
1.3.2.1 Wind Turbine Installations .............. 60
1.3.3 Ocean Energy .................................... 61
1.3.4 Geothermal Energy ............................... 64
1.3.5 Fuel Cells ...................................... 66
1.3.5.1 Fuel Cell Designs ...................... 67
1.3.5.2 Alkaline and Phosphoric Designs ........ 73
1.3.5.3 Proton Electrolyte Membrane ............ 73
1.3.5.4 Reversible Fuel Cells (RFCs) ........... 74
1.3.6 Energy Conservation ............................. 75
1.4 Solar Energy ........................................... 77
1.4.1 Insolation: Global and the United States ........ 78
1.4.2 Area Required to Meet Global Needs .............. 79
1.4.3 Solar Energy Storage ............................ 81
1.4.3.1 Storage by "Net Metering" .............. 82
1.4.3.2 Storing as Chemical Energy ............. 82
1.4.4 Solar Collector Designs ......................... 83
1.4.4.1 Thermal Solar Collector Designs (SEGS
and DSG) ............................... 83
1.4.4.2 The Combined-Cycle Plant (ISCCS) ....... 87
1.4.4.3 Photovoltaic (PV) Collectors ........... 87
1.4.4.4 Flat Collectors and Roof Shingles ...... 89
1.4.4.5 Ultrathin-Film Nanowire Designs ........ 90
1.4.4.6 Large-Scale PV Installations ........... 91
1.4.4.7 Solar Updraft Towers ................... 93
1.4.4.8 Stirling Solar Power Generators ........ 94
1.4.4.9 Solar Satellites ....................... 96
1.4.4.10 Floating Solar Islands ................. 96
1.4.5 Operating and New Solar Power Plants ............ 97
1.4.6 Solar Collector Costs, Efficiencies, and
Suppliers ....................................... 99
1.4.7 Estimated Solar System Costs ................... 102
1.5 Hydrogen Technology ................................... 104
1.5.1 Properties of Hydrogen ......................... 105
1.5.2 Hydrogen Generation ............................ 106
1.5.3 Solar-Hydrogen Production Efficiency ........... 107
1.5.4 Electrolysis of Water to Produce Hydrogen ...... 109
1.5.5 Oxyhydrogen (HHO) Process ...................... 112
1.5.6 Hydrogen Compression ........................... 113
1.5.7 Liquefaction of Hydrogen ....................... 115
1.5.8 Liquefaction Plants ............................ 116
1.5.9 Transportation and Storage ..................... 119
1.5.10 Hydrogen-Assisted Fossil Power Plants .......... 121
1.5.11 Efficiencies of Fossil and Hydrogen Fuels ...... 122
1.5.12 Hydrogen Generation and Handling Costs ......... 123
1.6 Renewable Energy Economy .............................. 124
1.6.1 "Zero-Energy" Homes ............................ 125
1.6.2 Zero-Energy Home Costs ......................... 127
1.6.3 The Solar-Hydrogen Demonstration Plant ......... 130
1.7 Costs and Efficiencies ................................ 133
1.7.1 Overall Costs of Energy ....................... 136
1.8 Conclusion ............................................ 138
2 Control and Optimization of Energy Conservation and
Renewable Energy Processes ................................. 141
2.1 Introduction .......................................... 141
2.2 Boiler Control and Optimization ....................... 142
2.2.1 Excess Air Optimization ........................ 144
2.2.2 Multivariable Envelope Control ................. 147
2.3 Building Conditioning Optimization .................... 149
2.3.1 Self-Heating Buildings ......................... 152
2.3.2 Elimination of Chimney Effects ................. 153
2.4 Chiller and Heat Pump Optimization .................... 155
2.4.1 Minimum Cost of Operation ...................... 157
2.4.2 Reconfiguration and Storage .................... 159
2.4.3 Cooling Towers ................................. 161
2.5 Compressor Optimization ............................... 162
2.5.1 Centrifugal Compressor Control ................. 164
2.5.2 Surge Control .................................. 166
2.5.3 Optimized Load Following ....................... 167
2.5.4 Multiple Compressor Optimization ............... 168
2.6 Control and Optimization Theory ....................... 171
2.6.1 Basics ......................................... 171
2.6.2 Degrees of Freedom and Loop Gain ............... 173
2.6.3 Feedforward Control ............................ 175
2.6.4 Process Reaction Curves ........................ 177
2.6.5 Proportional Control ........................... 179
2.6.6 Integral Control Mode .......................... 181
2.6.7 Derivative Control Mode ........................ 182
2.6.8 PID Control .................................... 184
2.6.9 Digital and Sample-and-Hold Algorithms ......... 185
2.6.10 Open-Loop PID Tuning ........................... 187
2.6.11 Closed-Loop PID Tuning ......................... 191
2.6.12 Tuning by Computer ............................. 194
2.6.13 Cascade Control ................................ 194
2.6.14 Digital Configuration of Cascade Control ....... 197
2.6.15 Ratio Control .................................. 198
2.6.16 Model-Based Controls ........................... 200
2.6.17 Model-Free Adaptive and Artificial Neural
Network Control ................................ 204
2.6.18 Adaptive and Optimizing Controls ............... 207
2.7 Control Valves ........................................ 211
2.7.1 Selection and Characteristics .................. 211
2.7.2 Distortion and Rangeability .................... 215
2.7.3 Valve Gain and Stability ....................... 217
2.7.4 Positioners .................................... 219
2.7.5 Self-Diagnosing and Flow-Sensing Smart
Valves ......................................... 220
2.7.6 Sizing of Control Valves ....................... 221
2.7.7 Applications—High Pressure ..................... 221
2.7.8 Applications—Noise ............................. 225
2.7.9 Applications—High Temperature .................. 227
2.7.10 Applications—Cryogenic ......................... 229
2.7.11 Applications—Cavitation ........................ 232
2.8 Cooling Tower Optimization ............................ 236
2.9 Distillation Optimization ............................. 238
2.9.1 The Process .................................... 239
2.9.2 Column Variables and Their Pairing ............. 241
2.9.3 Composition Control ............................ 242
2.9.4 Pressure Control ............................... 244
2.9.5 Minimizing Pressure and Vapor Recompression .... 244
2.9.6 Maximizing Feed Flow and Preheat ............... 246
2.9.7 Reflux Controls ................................ 247
2.9.8 Maximized Recovery or Constant Separation ...... 248
2.9.9 Controlling Two Products ....................... 251
2.9.10 Multiple Product and Multivariable Controls .... 252
2.9.11 Model-Based and ANN Control .................... 253
2.9.12 Profitability-Based Optimization ............... 255
2.10 Distribution of Liquids or Gases ...................... 257
2.11 Fan and Blower Optimization ........................... 259
2.12 Fuel Cell Controls .................................... 262
2.12.1 Fuel Cell Characteristics ...................... 263
2.12.2 Oxidant and Fuel Flow Metering ................. 264
2.12.3 Temperature and Auxiliary Controls ............. 267
2.12.4 Safety and Shutdown Controls ................... 269
2.12.5 Reversible Fuel Cell (RFC) Controls ............ 270
2.13 Geothermal Controls ................................... 272
2.13.1 Direct and Indirect Geothermal Pumping ......... 272
2.13.2 "Binary Cycle" Geothermal Heat Pumps (GHPs) .... 273
2.13.3 "Flash Steam" Systems .......................... 275
2.14 Heat Exchanger Optimization ........................... 276
2.14.1 Degrees of Freedom, Gain, Time Constants ....... 276
2.14.2 Tuning the Control Loop ........................ 277
2.14.3 Liquid-Liquid Heat Exchangers .................. 278
2.14.4 Heating with Steam ............................. 280
2.14.5 Condenser and Vaporizer Controls ............... 281
2.14.6 Advanced and Optimizing Controls ............... 282
2.15 Hydrogen Process Optimization ......................... 285
2.15.1 Electrolyzer Controls .......................... 285
2.15.2 Hydrogen Compression ........................... 287
2.15.3 Hydrogen Liquefaction Optimization ............. 289
2.16 Power Plant Optimization .............................. 292
2.16.1 Cogeneration and Combined Cycle ................ 292
2.16.2 Level and Steam Temperature Controls ........... 294
2.16.3 Gas Turbine and Electric Generator Controls .... 296
2.17 Pumping Station Optimization .......................... 299
2.17.1 Pump Curves, NPSH, and Cavitation .............. 299
2.17.2 Pumping Station Optimization ................... 302
2.17.3 Calculating the Savings ........................ 306
2.18 Solar Collector Farm Controls ......................... 307
2.18.1 Solar Hot Water System Controls ................ 307
2.18.2 Combination Hot Water and Electricity
Controls ....................................... 308
2.18.3 Photovoltaic Collector Controls ................ 310
2.18.4 Solar Plant Optimization Algorithms ............ 311
2.18.5 Thermal Plant Optimization ..................... 312
2.18.6 Monitoring and Reconfiguration ................. 313
2.19 Steam Turbine Optimization ............................ 314
2.19.1 Designs, Applications, and Governors ........... 315
2.19.2 Steam Turbine Optimization .................... 317
2.19.3 Extraction (Two-Stage) Turbine Optimization .... 318
2.19.4 Interaction, Decoupling and Safety ............. 321
3 Sensors and Analyzers for Renewable Energy Processes ....... 325
3.1 Introduction .......................................... 325
3.2 Analyzers ............................................. 326
3.2.1 Analyzer Selection ............................. 326
3.2.2 Analyzer Sampling .............................. 329
3.2.2.1 Filtering and Separation .............. 331
3.2.2.2 Probe Cleaners and Homogenizers ....... 332
3.2.2.3 Stack Gas Sampling .................... 333
3.2.3 Air-Quality Monitoring ......................... 334
3.2.3.1 Single-Source Sensors ................. 335
3.2.3.2 Static and Automatic Air Monitoring ... 337
3.2.4 Calorimeters ................................... 338
3.2.5 Carbon Dioxide ................................. 339
3.2.6 Coal Analyzers ................................. 341
3.2.7 Colorimeters and Shade Detectors ............... 343
3.2.8 Combustibles ................................... 344
3.2.9 Fiber-Optic Probes ............................. 347
3.2.10 Hydrocarbon Analyzers .......................... 347
3.2.11 Infrared and Near-Infrared Analyzers ........... 349
3.2.12 Mass Spectrometers ............................. 352
3.2.13 Moisture, Humidity, Dew Point .................. 354
3.2.14 Moisture in Industrial Materials ............... 357
3.2.15 Odor Detection ................................. 361
3.2.16 Open Path Spectrophotometry .................... 362
3.2.17 Oxygen in Gases ................................ 365
3.2.18 Raman Analyzers ................................ 369
3.2.19 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers ......................... 372
3.2.20 Ultraviolet Analyzers .......................... 374
3.2.21 Water Quality Monitoring ....................... 377
3.3 Anemometers ........................................... 380
3.4 Btu and Heat Rate Measurement ......................... 382
3.5 Electric Meters and Peak Shedding ..................... 385
3.6 Energy Management Systems ............................. 389
3.7 Explosion Suppression ................................. 392
3.8 Fire, Flame, and Smoke Detectors ...................... 395
3.9 Flowmeters ............................................ 396
3.9.1 Application and Selection ...................... 399
3.9.1.1 Accuracy and Rangeability ............. 399
3.9.1.2 Safety and Cost ....................... 401
3.9.1.3 Low-Flow Applications ................. 402
3.9.2 Cross-Correlation Flow Metering (CCFM) ......... 402
3.9.3 Elbow Flowmeters ............................... 403
3.9.4 Jet Deflection Flowmeters ...................... 404
3.9.5 Laminar Flowmeters ............................. 405
3.9.6 Magnetic Flowmeters ............................ 405
3.9.7 Mass Flowmeters ................................ 408
3.9.7.1 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters .............. 408
3.9.7.2 Thermal Mass Flowmeters ............... 411
3.9.7.3 Indirect Mass Flowmeters .............. 412
3.9.7.4 Angular Momentum Mass Flowmeters ...... 413
3.9.8 Metering Pumps ................................. 414
3.9.9 Orifice Plates ................................. 416
3.9.10 Pitot Tubes .................................... 420
3.9.11 Polyphase Flowmeters ........................... 421
3.9.12 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters ............... 423
3.9.12.1 PD Gas Meters ......................... 423
3.9.12.2 Liquid PD Meters ...................... 424
3.9.13 Purge Flowmeters ............................... 426
3.9.14 Solids Mass Flowmeters ......................... 427
3.9.15 Target Flowmeters .............................. 429
3.9.16 Turbine Flowmeters ............................. 430
3.9.17 Ultrasonic Flowmeters .......................... 432
3.9.18 Variable-Area Flowmeters (Rotameters) .......... 435
3.9.19 V-Cone Flowmeter ............................... 436
3.9.20 Venturi Tubes and Nozzles ...................... 438
3.9.21 Vortex Flowmeters .............................. 441
3.10 Leak Detectors ........................................ 444
3.11 Level Detectors ....................................... 445
3.11.1 Capacitance Probes ............................. 449
3.11.2 Differential Pressure Sensors .................. 450
3.11.3 Displacement-Type Level Detectors .............. 454
3.11.4 Laser and Optical Detectors .................... 455
3.11.5 Microwave and Radar Gauges ..................... 458
3.11.6 Radiation Gauges ............................... 460
3.11.7 Tank Farm Level Monitoring ..................... 461
3.11.8 Ultrasonic Level Detectors ..................... 463
3.12 Machine Vision ........................................ 465
3.13 Position Detection .................................... 468
3.14 Pressure Detection .................................... 470
3.14.1 Application and Selection ...................... 470
3.14.2 High-Pressure Sensors .......................... 473
3.14.3 Pressure Safety Devices ........................ 478
3.14.3.1 Alarm and Interlock Switches .......... 478
3.14.3.2 Pressure Regulators ................... 479
3.14.3.3 Relief Valves ......................... 482
3.14.3.4 Rupture Disks ......................... 483
3.15 Positioning and Proximity ............................. 488
3.16 Temperature ........................................... 492
3.16.1 Application and Selection ...................... 496
3.16.2 Cryogenic Temperature Sensors .................. 498
3.16.3 High-Temperature Sensors ....................... 500
3.16.4 Infrared and Fiber-Optic Thermometers .......... 501
3.16.5 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) ........ 505
3.16.6 Thermistors .................................... 508
3.16.7 Thermocouples .................................. 510
3.17 Weather Stations and Solar Detectors .................. 516
4 The Design of the World's First Full-Size Solar-Hydrogen
Demonstration Power Plant .................................. 521
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 521
4.2 Solar-Hydrogen Demonstration Power Plant .............. 521
4.2.1 The Process .................................... 522
4.2.2 Unique Design Features and Inventions .......... 523
4.2.3 Profitability Optimization ..................... 526
4.2.4 Optimizing Control Systems ..................... 527
4.2.4.1 Solar Farm Optimization ............... 527
4.2.4.2 Boiler and Heat Storage
Optimization .......................... 529
4.2.4.3 Boiler Feedwater Optimization ......... 530
4.2.4.4 Geothermal Heat Pump Optimization ..... 530
4.2.4.5 Electrolyzer Optimization ............. 531
4.2.4.6 H2 Liquefier Optimization ............. 533
4.2.4.7 Methanol Converter System ............. 535
4.2.4.8 Optimized H2 Compression .............. 535
5 Conclusions ................................................ 537
5.1 Comparing Energy Options .............................. 537
5.2 Nuclear Option ........................................ 538
5.3 Breeder Reactors ...................................... 539
5.4 Costs of Converting to Renewable Energy ............... 542
5.4 Costs of Inaction ..................................... 543
5.5 The Road to a Sustainable Future ...................... 544
5.6 Dealing with Facts .................................... 546
Abbreviations ................................................. 547
Index ......................................................... 553
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