1 The Arctic Ocean: Boundary Conditions and Background
Information .................................................. 1
1.1 Physiography and Bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean ......... 1
(M. Jakobsson, A. Grantz, Y. Kristoffersen, R. Macnab)
1.1.1 Introduction ..................................... 1
1.1.2 Definition of the Arctic Ocean and its
Constituent Seas ................................. 1
1.1.3 Bathymetry and Physiography ...................... 3
1.1.4 Volumes, Areas and Mean Depths of the Arctic
Ocean and its Constituent Seas ................... 5
1.2 The Arctic Ocean: Modern Status and Recent Climate
Change .................................................. 6
(R.W. Macdonald, E. Sakshaug, R. Stein)
1.2.1 Modern hydrography and Sea-ice Cover of
the Arctic Ocean ................................. 6
1.2.2 The Arctic Ocean and Global Change .............. 11
1.2.2.1 The distant past ....................... 11
1.2.2.2 Recent change and the Arctic
Oscillation ............................ 13
1.2.2.3 The Future ............................. 20
1.3 The Tectonic Evolution of the Arctic Ocean: Overview
and Perspectives ....................................... 21
(W. Jokat)
1.4 Geochemical Proxies Used for Organic Carbon Source
Identification in Arctic Ocean Sediments ............... 24
(R. Stein, R.W. Macdonald)
1.4.1 Introduction .................................... 24
1.4.2 Organic geochemical bulk parameters ............. 25
1.4.3 Maceral composition ............................. 28
1.4.4 Biomarker composition ........................... 29
1.4.5 The application of redox markers to organic
carbon sediment geochemistry .................... 30
2 Modern Terrigenous Organic Carbon Input to the Arctic
Ocean ....................................................... 33
(V. Rachold, H. Eicken, V.V. Gordeev, M.N. Grigoriev,
H.-W. Hubberten, A. P. Lisitzin, V.P. Shevchenko,
L. Schirmeister)
2.1 General Introduction
2.2 River Input ............................................ 33
(V.V. Gordeev, V. Rachold)
2.2.1 Introduction .................................... 33
2.2.2 River water and suspended matter ................ 33
2.2.3 Fluxes of organic carbon ........................ 37
2.3 Organic Carbon Input to the Artie Seas Through
Coastal Erosion ........................................ 41
(M.N. Grigoriev, V. Rachold, H.-W. Hubberten,
L. Schirmeister)
2.3.1 Introduction .................................... 41
2.3.2 Methodology ..................................... 42
2.3.3 Coastal organic carbon input .................... 45
2.4 The Role of Arctic Sea Ice in Transporting and
Cycling Terrestrial Organic Matter ..................... 45
(H. Eicken)
2.4.1 Introduction .................................... 45
2.4.2 Methods ......................................... 46
2.4.3 Sea ice transport in the Arctic Ocean and
entrainment of particulate matter ............... 46
2.4.4 Dissolved organic carbon in sea ice ............. 47
2.4.5 Particulate organic carbon in sea ice ........... 50
2.4.6 Conclusions ..................................... 52
2.5 Aeolian Input .......................................... 53
(V.P. Shevchenko, A.R. Lisitzin)
2.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks .................... 54
3 Primary and Secondary Production in the Arctic Seas ......... 57
(E. Sakshaug)
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 57
3.2 Major Algal Groups and Their Distribution .............. 57
3.2.1 Distribution of species ......................... 58
3.2.2 Nutritional and chemical properties ............. 59
3.3 Limitation and Control of Primary Production ........... 59
3.3.1 Light ........................................... 60
3.3.2 Nutrients ....................................... 63
3.4 Primary Production and Growth Rate ..................... 64
3.4.1 New vs. regenerative primary production ......... 64
3.4.2 Chla: С ratio, light saturation index,
photoacclimation ................................ 64
3.4.3 Growth rate ..................................... 65
3.4.4 Growth strategies ............................... 66
3.5 Seasonality ............................................ 66
3.5.1 Pre-bloom, winter and survial ................... 67
3.5.2 Spring blooms, vertical mixing and ice-edge
blooms .......................................... 67
3.5.3 The post bloom .................................. 68
3.6 Distribution of Primary Production ..................... 69
3.6.1 The deep Arctic Ocean Basin ..................... 69
3.6.2 Polynyas ........................................ 71
3.6.3 Arctic Shelf Seas ............................... 73
3.6.4 The Atlantic sector: The Nordic Seas, Baffin
Bay, Hudson Bay and Labrador Sea ................ 74
3.6.5 Bering Shelf .................................... 75
3.6.6 Oceanic Bering Sea .............................. 76
3.6.7 Sea of Okhotsk .................................. 76
3.7 Mesozooplankton ....................................... 76
3.7.1 Mesozooplankton biomass ......................... 77
3.7.2 Grazing and mesozooplankton production .......... 78
3.7.3 Match-mismatch .................................. 79
3.8 Primary Production - Impact of Climate Change .......... 79
3.9 Summary and Concluding Remarks ......................... 81
4 The Role of Dissolved Organic Matter for the Organic
Carbon Cycle in the Arctic Ocean ............................ 83
(R.M.W. Amon)
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 83
4.2 Riverine DOM on Arctic Shelves and Beyond .............. 83
4.2.1 Estuarine Mixing ................................ 84
4.2.2 Chemical characteristics and origin of DOM
on the Eurasian shelf ........................... 85
4.2.3 The role of bacteria and photochemical
processes on the Eurasian shelf ................. 87
4.2.4 The role of sea ice formation on DOM on
the Eurasian shelf .............................. 88
4.2.5 The distribution of terrestrial DOM in the
central Arctic Ocean and the GIN Sea ............ 90
4.3 Distribution, Chemical Composition, and Fluxes of
Marine DOM in the Central Arctic Ocean ................. 92
4.3.1 Primary production and bacterial utilization
of DOM .......................................... 92
4.3.2 DOM distribution and chemical composition ....... 94
4.3.3 DOC exchanges between the Arctic Ocean and
adjacent Ocean basins ........................... 96
4.3.4 Vertical export of DOC in the Arctic Ocean ...... 97
4.4 Summary and Concluding Remarks ......................... 99
5 Particulate Organic Carbon Flux to the Arctic Ocean Sea
Floor ...................................................... 101
(P. Wassmann, E. Bauerfeind, M. Fortier, M. Fukuchi,
В. Hargrave, B. Moran, T. Noji, E.-M. Nöthig, K. Olli,
R. Peinert, H. Sasaki, V.P. Shevchenko)
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 101
5.2 What do we Know About Vertical Carbon Flux from the
Arctic Ocean? ......................................... 102
5.3 Case Studies .......................................... 103
5.3.1 North Water Polynya (B. Hargrave) .............. 103
5.3.2 North East Water Polynya (E. Bauerfeind) ....... 106
5.3.3 Greenland Sea (R. Peinert, T. Noji) ............ 109
5.3.4 Central Barents Sea and Northern Spitsbergen ... 112
(P. Wassmann, K. Olli)
5.3.5 Eastern Barents Sea and Kara Sea
(V. Shevchenko) ................................ 114
5.3.6 Laptev Sea and Lomonosov Ridge ................. 117
(E.-M. Nöthig, V. Shevchenko)
5.3.7 Northern Bering Sea (H. Sasaki, M. Fukuchi) .... 118
5.3.8 Canadian Ice Island (B. Hargrave) .............. 120
5.3.9 Canadian Archipelago: Barrow Strait
(M. Fortier) ................................... 122
5.4 Regional Variability in РОС Export Flux in the
Arctic Ocean Determined Using 234Th as a Tracer ....... 126
(B. Moran)
5.4.1 Introduction and Background .................... 126
5.4.2 Uncertainties in 234Th-derived РОС Export
Fluxes ......................................... 127
5.4.3 Regional Variability in Arctic РОС Export
Fluxes ......................................... 127
5.4.4 Conclusions .................................... 130
5.5 Particulate Organic Carbon Flux to the Seafloor of
the Arctic Ocean: Quantity, Seasonality and
Processes ............................................. 131
(P. Wassmann)
5.5.1 Seasonal and Annual Estimates of Vertical
Carbon Export .................................. 131
5.5.2 Ice, Light, Stratification, and Vertical
Carbon Export .................................. 133
5.5.3 River Run-off, Resuspension, and Vertical
Carbon Export .................................. 133
5.5.4 High Retention of Vertical Carbon Export in
the Twilight Zone of the Arctic Ocean .......... 134
5.5.5 Global Warming and Vertical Carbon Export ...... 135
5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ........................ 138
6 The Benthos of Arctic Seas and its Role for the Organic
Carbon Cycle at the Seafloor ............................... 139
(M. Klages, A. Boetius, J.P. Christensen, H. Deubel,
D. Piepenburg, I. Schewe, T. Soltwedel)
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 139
6.2 Origin and Evolution of Arctic Habitats and Species ... 141
6.3 Food Supply of the Arctic Benthos: Sources and
Pathways .............................................. 141
6.4 Benthic Communities of the Arctic Seas ................ 146
6.4.1 Arctic Shelves and Margins ..................... 146
6.4.2 Central Arctic ................................. 157
6.5 Organic Carbon Utilization by the Arctic Benthos ...... 159
6.5.1 Arctic Continental Shelves ..................... 160
6.5.2 Central Arctic Ocean ........................... 162
6.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ........................ 167
7 Organic Carbon in Arctic Ocean Sediments: Sources,
Variability, Burial, and Paleoenvironmental Significance ... 169
7.1 Organic Carbon in Arctic Ocean Sediments: A General
Introduction .......................................... 169
(R. Stein, R.W. Macdonald)
7.1.1 Pre-Quaternary (Jurassic-Cretaceous) Organic
Carbon Records ................................. 169
7.1.2 Modern and Late Quaternary Organic Carbon
Records ........................................ 172
7.2 The Beaufort Sea: Distribution, Sources, Fluxes,
and Burial Rates of Organic Carbon .................... 177
(R.W. Macdonald, A.S. Naidu, M.B. Yunker, С. Gobeil)
7.2.1 Introduction ................................... 177
7.2.2 DataBase ....................................... 178
7.2.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 178
7.2.4 The Effect of Sea-level Rise During the
Holocene ....................................... 186
7.2.5 Burial Rates of Organic Carbon and Budget ...... 186
7.2.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 192
7.3 The Continental Margin of the North Bering-Chukchi
Sea: Distribution, Sources, Fluxes, and Burial Rates
of Organic Carbon ..................................... 193
(A.S. Naidu, L.W. Cooper, J.M. Grebmeier,
T.E. Whitledge, M.J. Hameedi)
7.3.1 Introduction ................................... 193
7.3.2 Data Base, Material and Methods ................ 195
7.3.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 196
7.3.4 Fluxes, Accumulation, Burial Rates, and
Remineralization of ОС, and Benthic Oxygen
Uptake Rates ................................... 201
7.3.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 203
7.4 The East Siberian Sea: Distribution, Sources, and
Burial of Organic Carbon .............................. 204
(V.I. Petrova, G.I. Batova, A.G. Zinchenko,
A.V. Kursheva, E.V. Narkevskiy)
7.4.1 Introduction ................................... 204
7.4.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 206
7.4.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 206
7.4.4 Burial Rates of Organic Carbon ................. 212
7.4.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 212
7.5 The Laptev Sea: Distribution, Sources, Variability
and Burial of Organic Carbon .......................... 213
(R. Stein, K. Fahl)
7.5.1 Introduction ................................... 213
7.5.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 214
7.5.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 215
7.5.4 Late Quaternary Organic Carbon Records
and Paleoenvironment ........................... 221
7.5.5 Accumulation Rates and Budget of Total
Sediment and Organic Carbon .................... 228
7.5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 236
7.6 The Kara Sea: Distribution, Sources, Variability
and Burial of Organic Carbon .......................... 237
(R. Stein, K. Fahl)
7.6.1 Introduction ................................... 237
7.6.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 240
7.6.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 240
7.6.4 Late Quaternary Organic Carbon Records
and Paleoenvironment ........................... 248
7.6.5 Budget of Total Sediment and Organic Carbon .... 257
7.6.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 266
7.7 The Barents Sea: Distribution, Sources, Variability
and Burial of Organic Carbon .......................... 266
(A. Vetrov, E.A. Romankevich)
7.7.1 Introduction ................................... 266
7.7.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 267
7.7.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 267
7.7.4 Late Quaternary Organic Carbon Records and
Paleoenvironment ............................... 270
7.7.5 Burial Rates and Organic Carbon Budget ......... 273
7.7.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 278
7.8 Northern Fram Strait und Yermak Plateau:
Distribution, Variability and Burial of Organic
Carbon and Paleoenvironmental Implications ............ 279
(D. Birgel, R. Stein)
7.8.1 Introduction ................................... 279
7.8.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 280
7.8.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 280
7.8.4 Late Quaternary Organic Carbon Records
and Paleoenvironment ........................... 285
7.8.5 Accumulation Rates and Organic Carbon Budget ... 289
7.8.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 294
7.9 The Central Arctic Ocean: Distribution, Sources,
Variability and Burial of Organic Carbon .............. 295
(R. Stein, С. Schubert, R.W. Macdonald, K. Fahl,
H.R. Harvey, D. Weiel)
7.9.1 Introduction ................................... 295
7.9.2 Data base, Material and Methods ................ 297
7.9.3 Distribution and Sources of Organic Carbon
in Surface Sediments ........................... 297
7.9.4 Late Quaternary Organic Carbon Records
and Paleoenvironment ........................... 303
7.9.5 Accumulation Rates and Budget of Total
Sediment and Organic Carbon .................... 311
7.9.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks ................. 314
8 Organic Carbon Budget: Arctic Ocean vs. Global Ocean ....... 315
(R. Stein, R.W. Macdonald)
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 315
8.2 Global Organic Carbon Fluxes: Sources and Sinks ....... 315
8.3 Arctic Ocean Organic Carbon Fluxes: Sources and
Sinks ................................................. 317
8.4 Summary and Concluding Remarks ........................ 322
9 References ................................................. 323
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