 | Gupta R.B. Gasoline, diesel, and ethanol biofuels from grasses and plants. - Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. - xiv, 230 p.: ill., maps. - Ref.: p.209-224. - Ind.: p.225-230. - ISBN 978-0-521-76399-8
|
Preface ..................................................... xiii
1 Introduction ................................................ 1
1.1 Energy ................................................. 1
1.2 Petroleum .............................................. 3
1.2.1 History of Petroleum Exploration ................ 4
1.2.2 Petroleum Refining and Shipping ................. 5
1.2.3 Classification of Oils .......................... 7
1.2.4 Petroleum Reserves and Crude Oil Production ..... 9
1.2.5 Crude Oil Pricing .............................. 11
1.3 Natural Gas ........................................... 12
1.3.1 Methane from Gas Hydrates ...................... 15
1.4 Coal .................................................. 15
1.5 Biofuels .............................................. 16
1.5.1 Ethanol ........................................ 17
1.5.2 Methanol ....................................... 18
1.5.3 Butanol ........................................ 19
1.5.4 Biogas ......................................... 20
1.5.5 Hydrogen ....................................... 20
1.5.6 Biodiesel ...................................... 22
1.5.7 Bio-Oil ........................................ 22
1.5.8 Diesel from Fisher-Tropsch Technology .......... 22
1.5.9 Biocrude ....................................... 23
1.5.10 Biochar ....................................... 24
1.6 Summary ............................................... 24
2 Air Pollution and Global Warming from the Use of Fossil
Fuels ...................................................... 25
2.1 Introduction .......................................... 25
2.2 Air Pollution ......................................... 25
2.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides ................................ 27
2.2.2 Sulfur Dioxide ................................. 27
2.2.3 Fine Particles ................................. 27
2.2.4 Mercury ........................................ 28
2.2.5 Lead ........................................... 29
2.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions .............................. 30
2.4 Greenhouse Effect ..................................... 33
2.5 Global Warming ........................................ 36
2.5.1 Argument against Global Warming ................ 38
2.6 Kyoto Protocol ........................................ 38
2.7 Carbon Credits ........................................ 39
2.8 Carbon Sequestration .................................. 39
2.9 Summary ............................................... 40
3 Renewable Energy Sources ................................... 41
3.1 Introduction .......................................... 41
3.2 Biomass ............................................... 42
3.3 Hydropower ............................................ 46
3.4 Geothermal ............................................ 47
3.5 Wind .................................................. 49
3.6 Solar ................................................. 50
3.7 Ocean Energy .......................................... 52
3.8 Biogas ................................................ 53
3.9 Summary ............................................... 54
4 Biomass Availability in the World .......................... 56
4.1 Introduction .......................................... 56
4.2 Biomass Definition .................................... 56
4.3 Biomass Sources ....................................... 58
4.3.1 Solid Wastes ................................... 58
4.3.2 Agriculture Residue ............................ 59
4.3.2.1 Cereal Straw ........................... 59
4.3.2.2 Corn Stover ............................ 60
4.3.2.3 Rice Husk .............................. 60
4.3.2.4 Bagasse ................................ 60
4.3.3 Energy Crops ................................... 61
4.3.4 Pulp and Paper Industry Waste .................. 64
4.3.5 Wood and Forest Waste .......................... 65
4.3.6 Algae .......................................... 66
4.4 World Potential to Product Biomass .................... 67
4.5 Biomass Characterization .............................. 67
4.5.1 Moisture Content ............................... 69
4.5.2 Ash Content .................................... 69
4.5.3 Heating Value .................................. 70
4.5.4 Organic Chemical Composition ................... 70
4.5.5 Density ........................................ 71
4.6 Summary ............................................... 72
5 Conventional Ethanol Production from Corn and Sugarcane .... 73
5.1 Introduction .......................................... 73
5.1.1 Ethanol ........................................ 73
5.1.2 Ethanol Fuel ................................... 73
5.2 Ethanol in Ancient Times .............................. 74
5.3 Current Ethanol Production ............................ 75
5.4 Fermentation .......................................... 76
5.5 Ethanol from Sugarcane ................................ 79
5.6 Ethanol from Corn ..................................... 79
5.6.1 The Corn Wet-Milling Process ................... 80
5.6.2 The Corn Dry-Milling Process ................... 80
5.6.3 Byproducts ..................................... 81
5.7 Separation and Purification ........................... 82
5.8 Summary ............................................... 83
6 Ethanol from Biomass by Fermentation ....................... 84
6.1 Challenges with Corn-Based Ethanol .................... 84
6.2 Cellulose in Biomass .................................. 84
6.3 Sugars from Cellulose ................................. 88
6.4 Factors Affecting Lignocellulose Digestibility ........ 88
6.4.1 Lignin Content ................................. 88
6.4.2 Hemicelluloses Content ......................... 89
6.4.3 Acetyl and Other Inhibitor Content ............. 89
6.4.4 Cellulose Crystallinity and Degree of
Polymerization ................................. 90
6.4.5 Surface Area of Pore Volume .................... 90
6.5 Biomass Pretreatment .................................. 90
6.5.1 Physical Pretreatments ......................... 91
6.5.2 Chemical Pretreatments ......................... 91
6.5.2.1 Dilute Acids .......................... 92
6.5.2.2 Peracetic Acid (C2H4O3) ................ 93
6.5.2.3 Concentrated Sulfuric Acid ............ 93
6.5.2.4 Concentrated Phosphoric Acid .......... 94
6.5.2.5 Ionic Liquids ......................... 94
6.5.2.6 Alkali ................................ 95
6.5.2.7 Ammonia ............................... 95
6.5.2.8 Organic Solvents ...................... 95
6.5.3 Hydrothermal Pretreatment ...................... 96
6.5.4 Physicochemical Pretreatments .................. 96
6.5.4.1 Steam Hydrolysis and Explosion ........ 96
6.5.4.2 Ammonia Fiber Explosion (AFEX) ........ 97
6.5.4.3 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide .......... 97
6.6 Cellulose Hydrolysis to Produce Sugars ................ 98
6.7 Fermentation of Sugars to Ethanol ..................... 99
6.7.1 Xylose Fermentation
6.8 Ethanol Separation and Purification .................. 101
6.9 Summary .............................................. 101
7 Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils ............................. 102
7.1 What Is Biodiesel? ................................... 102
7.2 History .............................................. 102
7.3 Vegetable Oil Resources .............................. 103
7.3.1 Nonedible Oil Resources ....................... 106
7.4 Transesterification .................................. 107
7.4.1 Catalytic Methods ............................. 107
7.4.2 Noncatalytic Supercritical Alcohol Method ..... 108
7.4.3 Recovery of Glycerol .......................... 109
7.4.4 Reaction Mechanism ............................ 110
7.5 Current Technologies ................................. 111
7.5.1 Raw Materials and Feedstock Preparation ....... 112
7.5.1.1 Choice of Alcohol ..................... 113
7.5.2 Batch Process ................................. 114
7.5.3 Continuous Process ............................ 115
7.5.4 Single-Phase Cosolvent Process ................ 115
7.5.5 Supercritical Methanol Process ................ 116
7.6 Fuel Properties of Biodiesels ........................ 117
7.6.1 Viscosity, Density, and Flash Point ........... 117
7.6.2 Cetane Number, Cloud, and Pour Point .......... 119
7.6.3 Combustion Efficiency ......................... 120
7.6.4 Comparison of Methyl with Ethyl Esters ........ 120
7.6.5 Emissions ..................................... 120
7.6.6 Biodegradability .............................. 121
7.6.7 Engine Performance ............................ 121
7.7 Disadvantages of Biodiesel ........................... 122
7.8 Summary .............................................. 122
8 Diesel from Biomass Gasification Followed by Fischer-
Tropsch Synthesis ......................................... 123
8.1 Diesel Fuel .......................................... 123
8.1.1 Diesel from Petroleum ......................... 123
8.1.2 Diesel from Coal .............................. 125
8.1.3 Diesel from Biomass ........................... 126
8.2 Gasification of Biomass to Produce Syngas ............ 126
8.2.1 Types of Gasifiers ............................ 128
8.2.2 Gasification Chemistry ........................ 130
8.3 Conditioning of Syngas ............................... 131
8.4 FT Synthesis to Produce Diesel ....................... 132
8.4.1 Reactor Configurations ........................ 133
8.4.2 Catalysts ..................................... 135
8.4.2.1 Iron-Based Catalysts ................. 135
8.4.2.2 Cobalt-Based Catalysts ............... 136
8.4.2.3 Catalyst Supports .................... 137
8.4.3 FT Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids .......... 137
8.5 Fuel Properties of FT Diesel ......................... 138
8.6 Summary .............................................. 139
9 Bio-Oil from Biomass Pyrolysis ............................ 140
9.1 What Is Bio-Oil? ..................................... 140
9.2 Pyrolysis ............................................ 140
9.2.1 Slow Pyrolysis ................................ 141
9.2.2 Fast Pyrolysis ................................ 142
9.3 Process Considerations ............................... 143
9.3.1 Feedstock Preparation ......................... 144
9.3.2 Heat Transfer Requirements .................... 144
9.3.3 Effect of Metal Ions and Salts ................ 145
9.3.4 Catalysis ..................................... 145
9.3.5 Kinetics ...................................... 145
9.3.6 Bio-Oil Yields ................................ 146
9.4 Pyrolysis Reactors ................................... 146
9.4.1 Bubbling Fluidized Bed ........................ 146
9.4.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed ..................... 147
9.4.3 Vacuum Pyrolysis .............................. 148
9.4.4 Ablative Fast Pyrolysis ....................... 148
9.4.5 Rotating Cone Pyrolyzer ....................... 149
9.4.6 Auger Reactor ................................. 150
9.4.7 Future Developments ........................... 150
9.5 Fuel Properties of Bio-Oil ........................... 151
9.5.1 Chemical Composition .......................... 152
9.5.2 Viscosity ..................................... 152
9.5.3 Density ....................................... 154
9.5.4 Acidity ....................................... 154
9.5.5 Water Content ................................. 154
9.5.6 Oxygen ........................................ 154
9.5.7 Char and Particle Content ..................... 154
9.5.8 Storage Stability ............................. 155
9.6 Upgrading of Bio-Oil ................................. 155
9.6.1 Solvent Fractionation ......................... 155
9.6.2 Deoxygenation ................................. 156
9.7 Summary .............................................. 157
10 Biocrude from Biomass Hydrothermal Liquefaction ........... 158
10.1 What Is Biocrude? .................................... 158
10.2 Hydrothermal Medium .................................. 158
10.2.1 Dielectric Constant ........................... 160
10.2.2 Ion Product ................................... 160
10.2.3 Solubility of Organics ........................ 161
10.2.4 Diffusivity and Viscosity ..................... 161
10.3 Liquefaction Process ................................. 161
10.3.1 Batch Process ................................. 162
10.3.2 Continuous Process ............................ 163
10.3.3 Pumping Biomass with Biocrude ................. 164
10.4 Liquefaction Mechanism ............................... 165
10.4.1 Hydrothermal Treatment with Catalysts ......... 167
10.4.2 Hydrothermal Treatment with Reducing Gases .... 169
10.5 Properties of Biocrude ............................... 169
10.6 Refinement and Upgrading of Biocrude ................. 170
10.6.1 Hydrodeoxygenation ............................ 170
10.7 Critical Issues ...................................... 171
10.7.1 Heat Integration .............................. 171
10.7.2 Biomass Feeding and Solids Handling ........... 171
10.7.3 Recovery of Inorganics and Catalysts .......... 173
10.7.4 Reactor Wall Effects .......................... 174
10.8 Summary .............................................. 174
11 Solar and Wind Energy for Biofuel Production .............. 175
11.1 Process Energy Needs for Biofuel Production .......... 175
11.2 Wind Energy .......................................... 176
11.3 Solar Energy ......................................... 178
11.3.1 Solar Collectors .............................. 178
11.4 Direct Use of Solar Radiation ........................ 180
11.4.1 Gasification .................................. 180
11.4.2 Pyrolysis ..................................... 180
11.4.3 Challenges with Use of Direct Solar
Radiation ..................................... 181
11.5 Storage of Solar Thermal Energy ...................... 181
11.6 Summary .............................................. 182
12 nvironmental Impacts of Biofuels .......................... 183
12.1 Biomass and the Natural Carbon Cycle ................. 183
12.2 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Production .......... 183
12.2.1 Land Use ...................................... 184
12.2.2 Irrigation Water Consumption .................. 185
12.2.3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Use .................. 185
12.2.4 Ecosystem Diversity ........................... 186
12.3 Environmental Impacts of Biomass-to-Biofuel
Conversion ........................................... 186
12.4 Environmental Impacts of Biofuel Use ................. 187
12.5 Life-Cycle Impacts ................................... 188
12.6 Summary .............................................. 190
13 Economic Impact of Biofuels ............................... 191
13.1 Biofuel Economy ...................................... 191
13.2 Economic Impact of Corn Ethanol ...................... 192
13.3 Economic Impact of Sugarcane Ethanol ................. 193
13.4 Economic Impact of Biodiesel ......................... 194
13.5 Future Economic Impact of Biomass-Based Biofuels ..... 194
13.6 Economic Impact on Developing and Rural Economies .... 198
13.7 Summary .............................................. 198
14 Biofuel Policy ............................................ 200
14.1 Introduction ......................................... 200
14.2 Brazilian Biofuel Policy ............................. 201
14.3 European Biofuel Policy .............................. 202
14.4 Chinese Biofuel Policy ............................... 203
14.5 Indian Biofuel Policy ................................ 204
14.6 The United States Biofuel Policy ..................... 205
14.7 Global Biofuel Projections ........................... 206
14.8 Summary .............................................. 207
References ................................................ 209
Index ........................................................ 225
|
|
