Preface ........................................................ xv
List of Contributors ......................................... xvii
SECTION 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, SAMPLING AND
ANALYTICAL ASPECTS ................................... 1
1 Introduction ................................................. 3
Peter S. Hooda
References ................................................... 7
2 Trace Elements: General Soil Chemistry, Principles and
Processes .................................................... 9
Filip M.G. Tack
2.1 Introduction ............................................ 9
2.2 Distribution of Trace Elements in the Soil ............. 10
2.3 Chemical Species ....................................... 11
2.4 Sorption and Desorption ................................ 13
2.5 Precipitation and Dissolution .......................... 18
2.6 Mobilization of Trace Elements ......................... 19
2.7 Transport .............................................. 25
2.8 Plant Uptake ........................................... 28
2.9 Concluding Remarks ..................................... 31
References .................................................. 32
3 Soil Sampling and Sample Preparation ........................ 39
Anthony C. Edwards
3.1 Introduction ........................................... 39
3.2 Soil Sampling .......................................... 40
3.3 Errors Associated with Soil Sampling and Preparation ... 41
3.4 Overview of the Current Situation ...................... 46
3.5 Scale and Variability .................................. 48
3.6 Conclusions ............................................ 49
References .................................................. 49
4 Analysis and Fractionation of Trace Elements in Soils ....... 53
Gijs Du Laing
4.1 Introduction ........................................... 53
4.2 Total Analysis ......................................... 54
4.3 Fractionation of Trace Elements ........................ 61
4.4 Species-Retaining and Species-Selective Leaching
Techniques ............................................. 71
4.5 Equipment for Direct Speciation of Trace Elements
in Soil ................................................ 73
4.6 Conclusions ............................................ 74
References .................................................. 74
5 Fractionation and Speciation of Trace Elements in Soil
Solution .................................................... 81
Gijs Du Laing
5.1 Introduction ........................................... 81
5.2 Soil Solution Sampling, Storage and Filtration ......... 82
5.3 Particle Size Fractionation ............................ 83
5.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction ............................... 86
5.5 Ion-Exchange Resins and Solid-Phase Extraction ......... 86
5.6 Derivatization Techniques to Create Volatile Species ... 87
5.7 Chromatographic Separation of Trace Element Species .... 88
5.8 Capillary Electrophoresis .............................. 90
5.9 Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films ...................... 91
5.10 Ion-Selective Electrodes ............................... 93
5.11 Donnan Membrane Technique .............................. 94
5.12 Voltammetric Techniques ................................ 96
5.13 Microelectrodes and Microsensors ....................... 98
5.14 Models for Predicting Metal Speciation in Soil
Solution .............................................. 100
5.15 Conclusions ........................................... 102
References ................................................. 103
SECTION 2 LONG-TERM ISSUES, IMPACTS AND PREDICTIVE
MODELLING .......................................... 111
6 Trace Elements in Biosolids-Amended Soils .................. 113
Weiping Chen, Andrew C. Chang, Laosheng Wu, Albert L.
Page and Bonjun Koo
6.1 Introduction .......................................... 113
6.2 Biosolids-Borne Trace Elements in Soils ............... 115
6.3 Assessing Availability of Trace Elements in
Biosolids-Amended Soils ............................... 120
6.4 Long-Term Availability Pool Assessment through a
Root Exudates-Based Model ............................. 122
6.5 Conclusions ........................................... 128
References ................................................. 129
7 Fertilizer-Borne Trace Element Contaminants in Soils ....... 135
Samuel P. Stacey, Mike J. McLaughlin and Ganga
M. Hettiarachchi
7.1 Introduction .......................................... 135
7.2 Phosphatic Fertilizers ................................ 136
7.3 Micronutrient Fertilizers ............................. 139
7.4 Long-Term Accumulation of Fertilizer-Borne Trace
Element Contaminants .................................. 139
7.5 Trace Element Contaminant Transfer to Crops and
Grazing Animals ....................................... 141
7.6 Conclusions ........................................... 147
References ................................................. 148
8 Trace Metal Exposure and Effects on Soil-Dwelling Species
and Their Communities ...................................... 155
David J. Spurgeon
8.1 Introduction .......................................... 155
8.2 Hazards and Consequences of Trace Metal Exposure ...... 156
8.3 Routes of Exposure, Uptake and Detoxification ......... 162
8.4 Conclusions ........................................... 167
References ................................................. 168
9 Trace Element-Deficient Soils .............................. 175
Rainer Schulin, Annette Johnson and Emmanuel Frossard
9.1 Introduction .......................................... 175
9.2 The Concept of Trace Element-Deficient Soils .......... 176
9.3 Methods to Identify and Map Soil Trace Element
Deficiencies .......................................... 179
9.4 Soil Factors Associated with Trace Element
Deficiencies .......................................... 182
9.5 Treatment of Soils Deficient in Trace Elements ........ 192
References ................................................. 194
10 Application of Chemical Speciation Modelling to Studies
on Toxic Element Behaviour in Soils ........................ 199
Les J. Evans, Sarah J. Barabash, David G. Lumsdon and
Xueyuan Gu
10.1 Introduction ......................................... 199
10.2 The Structure of Chemical Speciation Models .......... 201
10.3 The Species/Component Matrix ......................... 203
10.4 Aqueous Speciation Modelling ......................... 204
10.5 Modelling of Surface Complexation to Mineral
Surfaces ............................................. 207
10.6 Modelling of Surface Complexation to Soil Organic
Matter ............................................... 217
10.7 Discussion ........................................... 219
References ................................................ 222
SECTION 3 BIOAVAILABILITY, RISK ASSESSMENT AND
REMEDIATION ....................................... 227
11 Assessing Bioavailability of Soil Trace Elements .......... 229
Peter S. Hooda
11.1 Introduction ......................................... 229
11.2 Speciation, Bioavailability and Bioaccumulation:
Definitions and Concepts ............................. 230
11.3 Bioavailability Assessment Approaches ................ 234
11.4 Discussion and Conclusions ........................... 253
12 Bioavailability: Exposure, Dose and Risk Assessment ....... 267
Rupert L. Hough
12.1 Introduction ......................................... 267
12.3 Exposure Assessment .................................. 272
12.4 Dose-Response ........................................ 280
12.5 Risk Characterization ................................ 284
12.6 Assessment of Mixtures and Disparate Risks ........... 287
12.7 Conclusions .......................................... 288
References ................................................ 288
13 Regulatory Limits for Trace Elements in Soils ............. 293
Graham Merrington, Sohel Saikat and Albania Grosso
13.1 Introduction ......................................... 293
13.2 Derivation of Regulatory Limits for Trace Elements ... 296
13.3 National and International Initiatives in Setting
Limit Values ......................................... 301
13.4 Forward Look ......................................... 303
13.5 Conclusions .......................................... 304
References ................................................ 305
14 Phytoremediation of Soil Trace Elements ................... 311
Rufus L. Chaney, C. Leigh Broadhurst and Tiziana
Centofanti
14.1 Introduction ......................................... 311
14.2 The Nature of Soil Contamination where
Phytoextraction may be Applied ....................... 315
14.3 Need for Metal-Tolerant Hyperaccumulators for
Practical Phytoextraction ............................ 316
14.4 Phytoremediation Strategies: Applications and
Limitations .......................................... 317
14.5 Phytostabilization of Zinc-Lead, Copper, or Nickel
Mine Waste or Smelter-Contaminated Soils ............. 334
14.6 Recovery of Elements from Phytoextraction Biomass .... 336
14.7 Risks to Wildlife during Phytoextraction
Operations ........................................... 336
14.8 Conclusions .......................................... 337
References ................................................ 339
15 Trace Element Immobilization in Soil Using Amendments ..... 353
Jurate Kumpiene
15.1 Introduction ......................................... 353
15.2 Soil Amendments for Trace Element Immobilization ..... 354
15.3 Method Acceptance .................................... 369
15.4 Concluding Remarks ................................... 370
References ................................................ 371
SECTION 4 CHARACTERISTICS AND BEHAVIOUR OF INDIVIDUAL
ELEMENTS .......................................... 381
16 Arsenic and Antimony ...................................... 383
Yuji Arai
16.1 Introduction ......................................... 383
16.2 Geogenic Occurrence .................................. 385
16.3 Sources of Soil Contamination ........................ 386
16.4 Chemical Behavior in Soils ........................... 387
16.5 Risks from Arsenic and Antimony in Soils ............. 396
16.6 Conclusions and Future Research Needs ................ 400
References ................................................ 400
17 Cadmium and Zinc .......................................... 409
Rufus L. Chaney
17.1 Introduction ......................................... 409
17.2 Geogenic Occurrence and Sources of Soil
Contamination ........................................ 409
17.3 Chemical Behavior in Soils ........................... 415
17.4 Plant Accumulation of Soil Cadmium and Zinc .......... 416
17.5 Risk Implications for Cadmium in Soil Amendments ..... 419
17.6 Plant Uptake of Cadmium and Zinc in Relation to
Food-Chain Cadmium Risk .............................. 422
17.7 Food-Chain Zinc Issues ............................... 427
References ................................................ 429
18 Copper and Lead ........................................... 441
Rupert L. Hough
18.1 Introduction ......................................... 441
18.2 Copper ............................................... 443
18.3 Lead ................................................. 446
18.4 Risks from Copper and Lead ........................... 449
18.5 Concluding Remarks ................................... 452
References ................................................ 453
19 Chromium, Nickel and Cobalt ............................... 461
Yibing Ma and Peter S. Hooda
19.1 Introduction ......................................... 461
19.2 Geogenic Occurrences ................................. 463
19.3 Sources of Soil Contamination ........................ 464
19.4 Chemical Behaviour in Soils .......................... 465
19.5 Environmental and Human Health Risks ................. 470
19.6 Concluding Remarks ................................... 474
References ................................................ 475
20 Manganese and Selenium .................................... 481
Zhenli L. He, Jiali Shentu and Xiao E. Yang
20.1 Introduction ......................................... 481
20.2 Concentrations and Sources of Manganese and
Selenium in Soils .................................... 482
20.3 Chemical Behaviour of Manganese and Selenium in
Soils ................................................ 484
20.4 Effects on Plant, Animal and Human Health ............ 490
References ................................................ 493
21 Tin and Mercury ........................................... 497
Martin J. Clifford, Gavin M. Hilson and Mark E. Hodson
21.1 Introduction ......................................... 497
21.2 Geogenic Occurrence .................................. 500
21.3 Sources of Soil Contamination ........................ 502
21.4 Chemical Behaviour in Soils .......................... 505
21.5 Risks from Tin and Mercury in Soils .................. 506
22 Molybdenum, Silver, Thallium and Vanadium ................. 515
Les J. Evans and Sarah J. Barabash
22.1 Introduction ......................................... 515
22.2 Molybdenum ........................................... 517
22.3 Silver ............................................... 523
22.4 Thallium ............................................. 528
22.5 Vanadium ............................................. 534
22.6 Environmental and Human Health Risks ................. 540
23 Gold and Uranium .......................................... 551
Ian D. Pulford
23.1 Introduction ......................................... 551
23.2 Geogenic Occurrence .................................. 553
23.3 Soil Contamination ................................... 555
23.4 Chemical Behaviour in Soils .......................... 557
23.5 Risks from Gold and Uranium in Soils ................. 560
23.6 Concluding Comments .................................. 562
References ................................................ 562
24 Platinum Group Elements ................................... 567
F. Zereini and C.L.S. Wiseman
24.1 Introduction ......................................... 567
24.2 Sources of PGE in Soils .............................. 568
24.3 Emissions, Depositional Behavior, and
Concentrations in Soils .............................. 570
24.4 Geochemical Behavior in Soils ........................ 573
24.5 Bioavailability ...................................... 573
24.6 Conclusions .......................................... 574
References ................................................ 575
Index ........................................................ 579
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